The ancient city of
Ascalon is captured from the
Crusader States, and utterly destroyed by the
Mamluk sultan
Baibars, who goes so far as to fill in its important
harbor, leaving the site desolate, and the city never to be rebuilt.[6]
The independent state of
Kutch is founded, in present-day
India.[8]
A census of the Chinese city of
Hangzhou establishes that some 186,330 families reside within it, not including visitors and soldiers (Historian Jacques Gernet argues that this means a population of over 1 million inhabitants, making Hangzhou the most populous city in the world).[9]
The Summa Theologica, a work by
Thomas Aquinas that is considered within the Roman Catholic Church to be the paramount expression of its
theology, is completed (year uncertain).[13]
Witelo translates
Alhazen's 200-year-old treatise on
optics, Kitab al-Manazir, from
Arabic into
Latin, bringing the work to European academic circles for the first time.[14]
July 2 –
Peace of Pressburg: Kings
Ottokar II and
Stephen V sign a peace agreement at
Pressburg, settling territorial claims, following the failed invasion of
Hungary by Ottokar in April. In the agreement, Stephen promises not to support Ottokar's opponents in
Carinthia, and Ottokar renounces the castles he and his partisans occupy in Hungary.[20]
Construction of the
Tower of Kamyenyets (or the White Tower) in
Belarus begins. Later, it becomes a frontier stronghold on the northern border of
Volhynia.
Levant
February – Mamluk forces led by Sultan
Baibars continue their territorial expansion in western
Syria and appear before
Safita Castle (called the
White Castle) built by the
Knights Templar. After a heroic defense, the small garrison is advised by Grand Master
Thomas Bérard to surrender. The survivors are allowed to withdraw to
Tortosa.[23]
May–June – Baibars conducts an unsuccessful
siege of Tripoli, and also fails in an attempted naval invasion of
Cyprus. He sends an Egyptian fleet (some 20 ships) to
Limassol, while King
Hugh III (the Great) has left for
Acre. Due to bad weather and seamanship, 11 ships run aground and the crews fall into the hands of the Cypriots.[25]
May 9 – Prince
Edward (the Lord Edward) and King
Charles I of Anjou arrive in Acre, with a fleet of 30 galleys, starting the
Ninth Crusade against Baibars. During the Crusade they are unable to capture any territory and peace is quickly negotiated with the
Mamluk Sultanate. Baibars consolidates his occupation in Syria.[25]
October –
Abaqa Khan, Mongol ruler of the
Ilkhanate, detaches some 10,000 horsemen from
Anatolia to support Edward I (the Lord Edward) in his war against Baibars. They invade Syria and defeat Mamluk forces who protect the region around
Aleppo. The Mongols plunder the cities of
Maarat al-Numan and
Apamea.[26]
Asia
September 12 –
Nichiren, Japanese
Buddhist priest, is arrested by a band of soldiers and nearly beheaded. This incident, known as Hosshaku Kenpon or "casting off the transient and revealing the true," is regarded as a turning point of Nichiren's teachings within the various schools, known as
Nichiren Buddhism.[27]
December 18 – Kublai Khan renames his empire "Great Yuan" (大元; dà yuán), officially marking the start of the
Yuan Dynasty in China.
The
Nakhi Kingdom, of the northern
Himalayan foothills, is annexed by the Yuan Dynasty (approximate date).
February 21 – Charles signs a treaty, and is proclaimed
King of Albania. He promises to protect the nobles, and to honor the privileges they have from the
Byzantine Empire. The treaty declares the union between the Kingdom of Albania (Latin: Regnum Albanie) and the Kingdom of Sicily, under Charles' rule. He appoints
Gazo Chinard as his vicar-general, and sends his Sicilian fleet to
Achaea, to defend the principality against Byzantine attacks.[28]
June – Marinid forces land in
Spain, and ravage the countryside. They kill and capture many, and plunder livestock. The Marinids attack the castle of
Vejer de la Frontera in
Andalusia. On hearing the news, King
Alfonso X (the Wise) abandons his meeting with Sultan
Muhammad I, and orders an all-out war against
Granada.[29]
November – Charles I orders his officials to take all Genoese prisoner within his territories, except for the
Guelphs and to seize their property. The Sicilian fleet occupies
Ajaccio on
Corsica. Pope
Gregory X condemns the aggressive policy of Charles and proposes that the Genoese elect Guelph officials.[31]
May 22 – King
Hugh III (the Great) signs a peace with Sultan
Baibars, Mamluk ruler of
Egypt, at
Caesarea. The
Kingdom of Jerusalem is guaranteed for 10 years the possession of its present lands, which consists mainly of the narrow coastal plain from
Acre to
Sidon, together with the right to use without hindrance the pilgrim-road to
Nazareth. The
County of Tripoli is safeguarded by the peace treaty.[33]
June 16 – Edward (the Lord Edward) prevents an assassination attempt at Acre. A Syrian
Nizari (or Assassin) supposedly sent by Baibars penetrates into the prince's chamber and stabs him with a poisoned dagger. The wound is not fatal, but Edward is seriously ill for some months. Baibars hastens to dissociate himself from the deed by sending his congratulations on the prince's escape.[34]
August 18 – Nubian forces sack the Egyptian
Red Sea outpost of
Aydhab and raid the southern frontier city of
Aswan. In return, Baibars invades the kingdom of
Makuria.[35]
January 22 – Sultan
Muhammad I (or Ibn al-Ahmar) suffers fatal injuries after falling from his horse near the city of
Granada during a minor military expedition. He is succeeded by his son
Muhammad II, who becomes ruler of the
Emirate of Granada. Muhammad enters negotiations with King
Alfonso X ("the Wise") to make peace with
Castile, but he refuses to grant a truce to the Banu governors (arraeces) of
Málaga and
Guadix in
Andalusia.[37]
Autumn – Sultan Muhammad II of Granada sends an embassy to the court of Alfonso X in
Seville, where it is received with honour. Alfonso agrees to Granada's demands, to end his support for the
Banu Ashqilula, in exchange for the promise that Muhammad becomes Alfonso's vassal. Muhammad pays him 450,000 maravedis each year in
tribute and grants the Banu rebels a truce for two years.[38]
The Congregatio Regni totius Sclavonie Generalis, with its decisions (statuta et constitutiones), is the oldest surviving document written by the
Croatian parliament (or Sabor).
August – Mongol forces surround the castle of
Al-Bira. Baibars skirts around the enemy with camels and wagons. He launches a devastating attack and routes the Mongols.[41]
December – Followers of Persian poet and mystic
Rumi establish the
Mevlevi Order ("whirling dervishes") in the city of
Konya (approximate date).
Asia
March 14 –
Battle of Xiangyang: Chinese forces surrender to
Kublai Khan's general
Aju (or Achu) after a 6-year siege. The battle is the first in which firearms are used in combat.
May 7 –
Second Council of Lyon: Pope
Gregory X convenes a council at
Lyon, after Emperor
Michael VIII (Palaiologos) gives assurances that the
Orthodox Church is prepared to reunite with
Rome. The council agrees to a settlement between the
Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church over several key issues – Orthodox acceptance of papal primacy and the acceptance of the
Nicene Creed with the Filioque clause. Gregory approves a
tithe to support efforts to liberate the
Holy Land from Muslims, and reaches apparent resolution of the schism, which ultimately proves unsuccessful. All but four
mendicant orders of friars are suppressed. Catholic teaching on
Purgatory is defined for the first time.[42]
November – The
Imperial Diet at
Nuremberg orders that all crown estates seized since the death of Emperor
Frederick II be restored to King
Rudolf I. Almost all European rulers agree, with the exception of
Ottokar II, king of
Bohemia, who has benefited greatly by conquering or otherwise coming into possession of many of those lands.
England
August 2 – Prince
Edward (the Lord Edward) finally returns from the Holy Land, to be crowned king of
England, two years after his father King
Henry III's death, on
August 19.
November 4–
19 –
Battle of Bun'ei: Forces of the Mongol-led
Yuan Dynasty of
China invade
Japan. After conquering the Japanese settlements on
Tsushima and
Iki islands,
Kublai Khan's fleet moves on to Japan and lands at
Hakata Bay. Their landing is not unopposed: an old sea wall runs along much of the bay, and behind it are stationed the warriors of
Hōjō Tokimune. The Japanese open combat with whistling arrows (kabura-ya), designed to unnerve and intimidate their foes. The Mongols use bombs against the Japanese forces and manage to break through at a few places, burning down the nearby town of
Hakata (modern-day
Fukuoka). The invaders are eventually repelled, and after inflicting heavy losses on the Japanese, a withdrawal is ordered. Credit for a great typhoon – called a
kamikaze, or divine wind – the Mongol fleet is dashed on the rocks and destroyed. Some sources suggest that 200 warships are lost. Of the 30,000 strong invasion force, some 13,000 does not return.[45]
Nichiren, Japanese priest and philosopher, enters exile on
Mount Minobu. He leads a widespread movement of followers in
Kantō and
Sado mainly through his prolific letter-writing.
May 1 – In
Florence, the 9-year-old Dante first sees the 8-year-old
Beatrice, his lifelong muse. She appears later as one of his guides in the Divine Comedy, Paradiso and Purgatorio.[47]
Religion
Pope
Gregory X decrees that
conclaves (gatherings of the
College of Cardinals where the elections of a
bishop of Rome are convened) should be used for papal elections, reforming the electoral process which had taken over 3 years to elect him.
Gregory X obtains the region of
Romagna from Rudolf I, in exchange for acknowledging him as
Holy Roman Emperor. With this important acquisition, the
Papal States become the second-largest power block in Italy after the
Kingdom of Sicily.[48]
Battle of Neopatras: Emperor
Michael VIII (Palaiologos) assembles a Byzantine expeditionary force (some 30,000 men), mostly mercenaries from
Bulgaria,
Serbia and the
Sultanate of Rum. He places these forces under his own brother,
John Palaiologos, and General
Alexios Kaballarios. Michael sends them against
Thessaly, and is supported by the
Byzantine navy led by Admiral
Alexios Doukas Philanthropenos, who is ordered to attack the Latin principalities and prevent them from aiding
John I (Angelos), ruler of Thessaly. John is caught by surprise by the rapid advance of the Byzantine forces and is bottled up with a garrison in his capital of
Neopatras, which the Byzantines proceed to lay siege. John manages to escape: he climbs down the walls of the fortress with a rope and walks through the Byzantine lines. After 3 days, John reaches
Thebes, where he requests the aid of
John I de la Roche, duke of
Athens. He receives some 500 horsemen with whom he returns to Neopatras. Meanwhile, the Byzantine forces have been weakened, with several detachments sent off to capture other forts or plunder the region. The Byzantines panic under the sudden attack of a smaller but disciplined Latin force and breaks completely when a Cuman contingent switches sides. Despite John's attempt to rally his forces, they flee and scatter.[49]
Battle of Demetrias: Michael VIII (Palaiologos) sends a Byzantine fleet led by Alexios Philanthropenos, to harass the Latin coasts. A joint Latin fleet composed of Lombard and Venetian vessels from
Negroponte (
Euboea) and
Venetian-held Crete, is variously given at 30 to 60 ships. The Latin fleet under Admiral
Guglielmo II da Verona gets the Byzantines by surprise and their attack is so effective that they almost win. Their ships, on which high wooden towers have been erected, have the advantage, and many Byzantine seamen and soldiers are killed or drowned. Just as victory seem theirs, Greek reinforcements arrive, led by John I (Angelos). His arrival boosts the Byzantines' morale, and John's men, ferried on board the ships by small boats, begin to replenish their casualties and turn the tide. The Latin casualties are heavy, which also include Guglielmo. By nightfall, all but two Latin ships have been captured.[50]
Spring – King
Edward I (Longshanks) demands a meeting with
Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, prince of
Wales, at
Chester to pay homage, but Llywelyn refuses. In an attempt to stir up internal problems, Llywelyn seeks to marry the 23-year-old
Eleanor of Montfort, daughter of
Simon de Montfort. But Eleanor is captured by English pirates (employed by Edward) on the journey from
France to meet Llywelyn. She is held prisoner at
Windsor Castle and used as a bargaining chip over the coming years, in Edward's attempts to subjugate Llywelyn and Wales.
April 22 – The first
Statute of Westminster, drawn up between
Parliament and Edward I (Longshanks), defines the legal privileges that landowners are allowed. These are based on the investigations carried out in
1274, into the landowner's rights to own their land. Establishing a series of laws into 51 chapters, including equal treatment of rich and poor, free and fair elections, and definition of
Bailable and non-bailable offenses.
Marinid forces take the city of
Algiers, at that time independent.[56]
Asia
March – Mongol forces (some 200,000 men) under
Bayan of the Baarin (Hundred Eyes) defeat a Chinese army of 130,000 men led by the Song chancellor
Jia Sidao on the
Yangtze River. Sidao sends an emissary to Bayan to discuss a truce, but he declines to negotiate. Dowager Empress
Xie Daoqing strips Sidao of his rank and titles, and is later on her orders executed by one of his own guards, as he is sent to exile in
Fujian.[57]
The 21-year-old
Marco Polo together with his father and uncle,
Niccolò and Maffeo Polo, arrives at
Kublai Khan's opulent summer palace at
Shangdu (or Xanadu), after a 4-year journey. They present the "Great Khan" sacred oil from
Jerusalem and papal letters of Pope
Gregory X. Kublai takes Marco into his royal court and appoints him as a 'special envoy' (possibly as a
tax collector).[58]
In
Ghent, the first instance is recorded of emission of
life annuities by a town in the
Low Countries; this event confirms a trend of consolidation of local public debt in northwestern
Europe, initiated in
1218 by
Reims.[61]
Ramon Llull, Spanish scholar and theologian, establishes a school in
Majorca to teach Arabic to preachers, in an attempt to aid
proselytizing to Moors. He also discovers
diethyl ether.
Spring – Sultan
Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Abd al-Haqq and
Muhammad II, ruler of
Granada, agree to a truce with King
Alfonso X (the Wise) for two years. Before Abu Yusuf leaves, Muhammad's secretary addresses a poem to Abu Yusuf, expressing fear of Castile's power and appealing for Marinid's continued support. Later, Abu Yusuf lands at
Alcázar Seguir on
January 19. This ending the first Marinid invasion in
Al-Andalus (modern
Spain).[64]
Spring – King
Edward I (Longshanks) orders the people of
Bayonne in
Gascony (as part of the only English possessions in
France) to provide
Castile with warships "to resist the
Saracens by sea", but he excuses himself from personal participation against the Marinid invasion in Spain because of his wars in
Wales and his plan to lead a Crusade to the
Holy Land.[66]
June 15 – Remnants of the Chinese Song court in
Fuzhou province conduct the coronation ceremony for Prince Zhao Shi to become Emperor
Duan Zong (until
1278).
A severe 23-year
drought begins to affect the
Grand Canyon area, eventually forcing the agriculture-dependent
Puebloans (or Anasazi) to migrate out of the region.[70]
Merton College, Oxford, is first recorded as having a collection of books, making its
Library the world's oldest in continuous daily use.[71]
Economy
Henry of Ghent (or Henricus) becomes the last major theologian to openly consider
annuities as a usurious contract. The end of the debate allows for the expansion of the budding practice of renten emission, to become a staple of public finance in northwestern
Europe.[72]
March 19 –
Byzantine–Venetian Treaty: Emperor
Michael VIII (Palaiologos) concludes an agreement with the
Republic of Venice. Stipulating a two-year truce, and renewing Venetian commercial privileges in the
Byzantine Empire. Michael keeps the Venetians and their fleet from participating in the attempts of
Charles I, king of
Sicily, to organize an anti-Byzantine crusade, while the Venetians can retain their access to the Byzantine market.[73]
Battle of Pharsalus: Michael VIII (Palaiologos) sends a Byzantine expeditionary army under
John Synadenos to invade
Thessaly. The Byzantines are ambushed and defeated by Greek forces under
John I (Doukas), Latin ruler of Thessaly, near
Pharsalus (or Old Pharsalus). During the battle, Synadenos is captured and
Michael Kaballarios, commander of the Latin mercenaries, dies shortly afterward of his wounds.[74]
Summer –
Uprising of Ivaylo: A uprising under
Ivaylo breaks out in northeastern
Bulgaria against Emperor
Constantine I Tikh to cope with the constant Mongol invasions which devastated the country for years. He confronts and defeats the plundering Mongols, and by autumn all Mongols are driven out of Bulgarian territory. In return, Constantine gathers a small army and tries unsuccessfully to suppress the revolt.
March –
Siger of Brabant, Dutch teacher and philosopher, is condemned by the French
Inquisition for his advocacy of the
Averroist doctrine that reason is separate from Christian faith.[75]
May 12 –
Mehmet I of Karaman, Seljuk vizier, issues a
firman (decree) ordering the Turkish language to be used, instead of Arabic or Persian in government offices.
Roger Bacon, Franciscan friar and
University of Oxford lecturer, is arrested for spreading anti-Church views; specifically, the Church's stance on Greek philosopher
Galen.[79]
Levant
April 15 –
Battle of Elbistan: A Mamluk army (some 14,000 men) under Sultan
Baibars marches from
Syria into the Mongol-dominated
Sultanate of Rum and attacks the Mongol occupation force at
Elbistan. Baibars, with at least 10,000 horsemen, defeats and overwhelms the Mongol forces. After the battle, he marches unopposed to
Kayseri in the heart of
Anatolia in triumph and enters the city on
April 23.[80]
Migration of the (Southern)
Song Dynasty: Some 50,000 citizens of the Song Dynasty in
China become the first recorded inhabitants of
Macau, as they seek refuge from the invading armies of the
Yuan Dynasty. They also stay for a short period in
Kowloon (or New Kowloon).[82]
September 29 – Aragonese forces led by King
Peter III take the Muslim stronghold of
Montesa, putting an end to two years of
Mudéjar rebellion. The defeated Muslims are expelled from the realm and go into exile.[89]
England
November 17 – King
Edward I (Longshanks) raises the penalty for
coin clipping from banishment to execution. All Jews are subjected to arrest and search of their homes on suspicion of coin clipping. Some 680 Jews are imprisoned in the
Tower of London, with more than 300 subsequently executed. At this time, the Jewish population is believed to have been some 3,000.[90]
Levant
January – Charles I is crowned
King of Jerusalem, and is recognized by the kingdom's barons at
Acre. He surrenders the vicariate of
Tuscany to Nicholas III. His bailiff,
Roger of San Severino, appoints various Frenchmen from Charles' court as his chief officers.
Bohemond VII, count of
Tripoli (and nominal
Prince of Antioch), acknowledges Roger as lawful bailiff.[91]
Asia
May 8 – The 7-year-old Emperor
Duan Zong (or Zhao Shi) dies of illness. He is succeeded by his brother
Zhao Bing who becomes the last ruler of the
Song dynasty. Meanwhile, Mongol forces under the control of Mongol leader
Kublai Khan ("Great Khan") draw closer to the remnants of the Song imperial court.
The earliest known written copy of the Avesta, a collection of ancient sacred
PersianZoroastrian texts previously passed down orally, is produced.
Markets
Giles of Lessines writes his De usuris. He estimates that some credit contracts need not to be usurious, as "future things are not estimated to be of such value as those collected in the instant". The prevalence of this view in the usury debate allows for the development of the financial industry in
Roman Catholic Europe.[92]
July 17 –
Battle of Devina: Emperor
Michael VIII Palaiologos sends a Byzantine expeditionary force (some 10,000 men) to
Bulgaria, to impose his ally (and son-in-law)
Ivan Asen III on the throne. Tsar
Ivaylo, former rebel leader (see
Uprising of Ivaylo), attacks the Byzantines in the
Kotel Pass, completely routing them. Many of them perish in the battle – while the rest are captured and later killed by orders from Ivaylo. Later, Michael sends another army of some 5,000 men, but this is also defeated by Ivaylo before reaching the
Balkan Mountains. Without support, Ivan Asen has to flee to
Constantinople and the turmoil in Bulgaria continues.
July 20 –
Siege of Algeciras: Castilian forces led by King
Alfonso X ("the Wise") abandon the siege (begun in
1278), after their fleet (some 400 ships) is destroyed by the Marinids led by Sultan
Abu Yaqub Yusuf an-Nasr. All prisoners are decapitated except the officers who are taken hostage. For the second time, the entire Castilian fleet is lost and Alfonso is forced to sign a new truce.[94]
November – The first of the
Statutes of Mortmain are passed during the reign of King
Edward I ("Longshanks"), which prevents land from passing into the possession of the Church.
The second of two main surveys of the
Hundred Rolls, a census seen as a follow-up to the
Domesday Book completed in
1086, is begun; it lasts until
1280.
Spring – Mamluk forces led by the 19-year-old Sultan
Al-Said Barakah and
Qalawun ("the Thousander") invade
Cilician Armenia; a revolt in
Egypt while they are away force Barakah to abdicate. In August,
Qalawun takes over the government in
Cairo and proclaims himself sultan. He sends
Solamish, youngest son of former Sultan
Baibars, into exile. Meanwhile,
Sunqur al-Ashqar, Mamluk viceroy of
Damascus, refuses to accept Qalawun's authority and begins a rebellion in
Syria.[97]
March 19 –
Battle of Yamen:
Kublai Khan's Mongol Yuan fleet attacks the Chinese Song fleet (some 1,000 ships) under Admiral
Zhang Shijie at
Yamen. The Mongols send fireships, but this is not effective as the Song fleet is coated with fire-resistant mud.
Zhang Hongfan, commander of the Mongol forces, orders the Song fleet to be cut off from its base, depriving it of its supplies. He splits the Yuan fleet into four squadrons and again attacks the Song. The ill and weakened Song soldiers are no match for the Mongols in close combat, and the chaotic environment makes battle command impossible. The chained Song ships can neither support or maneuver. Song Chancellor
Lu Xiufu and Emperor
Zhao Bing drown themselves rather than be taken captive. This marks the end of the
Song dynasty after three centuries, Kublai Khan becomes sole emperor of China. The
Mongol Empire reaches its largest extent, although it has already partially fragmented.
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^Jacques Gernet (1996). A History of Chinese Civilization, p. 376. Cambridge University Press.
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^Hywel Williams (2005). Cassell's Chronology of World History, p. 148.
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^Joseph F. O'Callaghan (2011). The Gibraltar Crusade: Castile and the battle for the Strait, p. 71.
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^Wasserman, James (2001). The Templars and the Assassins: The Militia of heaven, p. 115.
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^Virani, Shafique N.; Assistant Professor Departments of Historical Studies and the Study of Religion Shafique N. (2007). The Ismailis in the Middle Ages: A History of Survival, a Search for Salvation, p. 32. Oxford University Press, USA.
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^O'Connor, Letitia Burns (1992). The Grand Canyon, pp. 16–19, 30–32. Los Angeles: Perpetua Press.
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^Geanakoplos, Deno John (1959). Emperor Michael Palaeologus and the West, 1258–1282: A Study in Byzantine-Latin Relations, p. 297. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
OCLC101176343.
^Hywel Williams (2005). Cassell's Chronology of World History, p. 148.
ISBN0-304-35730-8.
^Runciman, Steven (1958). The Sicilian Vespers: A History of the Mediterranean World in the Later Thirteenth Century, p. 173. Cambridge University Press.
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^Amitai-Preiss, Reuven (1995). Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Illkhanid War, 1260–1281, p. 174. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
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^Douglas Richardson, Kimball G. Everingham, Plantagenet Ancestry: A Study in Colonial and Medieval Families, page 192