October 12 – A great storm shifts the mouth of the
River Rother in England 12 miles (20 km) to the west; a battering series of strong storms significantly alters other coastal geography around
Romney Marsh.
The
Lombard League dissolves upon the death of its member states' nemesis, Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor.
King
Afonso III (the Boulonnais) captures the
Algarve from the Moors, thus completing the expulsion of the Moors from
Portugal.
Albertus Magnus isolates the element
arsenic, as the 8th discovered metal. He also first uses the word "
oriole" to describe a type of bird (most likely the
golden oriole).
The
Rialto Bridge in
Venice (in modern-day
Italy) is converted from a pontoon bridge to a permanent, raised wooden structure.
Starting in this year and ending in
1275, the Muslim
Shougeng Pu, likely a Persian or an Arab, serves as the Commissioner of Merchant Shipping for the
Song dynasty Chinese
seaport at
Quanzhou, due to his effort in defeating pirates.[3]
In
Tunis, a popular rebellion against newly arrived, wealthy and influential Andalusian refugees breaks out, and is violently put down.[5]
Oceania
Samoa frees itself from
Tongan rule, which begins the
Malietoa dynasty in Samoa (approximate date).
By topic
Markets
The Flemish town of
Douai emits the first recorded redeemable annuities in medieval Europe, confirming a trend of consolidation of local public debt started in
1218, in
Rheims.[6]
The
Sienese bankers belonging to the firm known as the
Gran Tavola, under the steering of the Bonsignori Brothers, become the main financiers of the Papacy.[7]
The
Polishland of Lebus is incorporated into the German state of
Brandenburg, marking the start of Brandenburg's expansion into previously Polish areas (
Neumark).[38]
January 18 – King
Henry I of Cyprus ("the Fat") dies and is succeeded by his son
Hugh II, who is only a few months old. His mother, Queen
Plaisance of Antioch, claims the regency of
Cyprus and the titular regency of
Jerusalem. The High Court of Cyprus confirms her position, but the barons of
Outremer require her attendance in person before they will recognize her.
John of Ibelin, count of
Jaffa, remains as
bailli, and Plaisance contemplates marrying John's youthful son
Balian. Meanwhile, King
Louis IX of France ("the Saint"), still staying at
Acre, continues to administer the government.[49]
October 10 – German imperial forces under King
Conrad IV suppress the Sicilian rebellion and recapture
Naples.
England
August 6 – King
Henry III leads an expedition to
Gascony, to repel a rumoured invasion from
Castile.[51] Meanwhile,
Simon de Montfort returns from Gascony where he allies himself with the barons who oppose Henry.
Henry III meets with the nobles and church leaders to reaffirm the validity of Magna Carta in exchange for taxation.[52]
May – Louis IX of France ("the Saint") dispatches
William of Rubruck from
Constantinople on a missionary journey to
Karakorum to seek an alliance against Syrian and Egyptian Muslims.[53]
October –
Pope Innocent IV returns to
Rome, after being deposed for 9 years by former Emperor
Frederick II, whose clash forms an important chapter in the conflict between the Papal States and the
Holy Roman Empire.
Innocent IV offers the crown of
Sicily, which he controls, to
Richard of Cornwall and
Charles of Anjou, both of whom refuse, and later to the 8-year-old
Edmund, son of Henry III of England.
Battle of Adrianople: Byzantine forces under Emperor
Theodore II (Laskaris) defeat the invading Bulgarians near
Adrianople. The young and inexperienced Tsar
Michael II Asen (also mentioned Michael I Asen) is caught by surprise and the Bulgarians suffer heavy losses. Michael is wounded during his hasty retreat through the forest.[54]
Europe
May 21 – King
Conrad IV, son of the late Emperor
Frederick II, dies of
malaria at
Lavello (southern
Italy). With Conrad's death a
interregnum begins, during which no ruler manages to gain undisputed control of
Germany. The 22-year-old
Manfred, half-brother of Conrad, refuses to surrender
Sicily to Pope
Innocent IV, and accepts the regency on behalf of Conrad's 2-year-old son
Conradin (the Younger).
King
Afonso III (the Boulonnais) holds the first session of the
Cortes (
Portugal's general assembly composed of nobles, members of the middle class and representatives from all municipalities), in
Leiria.
William II, anti-king of Germany, holds a diet (princely convention) at
Worms, in which the German cities are represented for the first time. He give orders to build strong castles in
Heemskerk and
Haarlem.
November 1 – Edward marries Eleanor of Castile in the
Cistercian monastery
Las Huelgas at Burgos. Henry III has demanded the marriage, in exchange for ending the war with half-brother Alfonso X.
April 24 – Louis IX and his family sails from
Acre to
France. His boat is nearly wrecked off the coast of
Cyprus and later nearly destroyed by fire. In July, the royal party arrives at
Hyères in
Provence.[57]
Asia
January 4 –
William of Rubruck, Flemish missionary and explorer, is received courteously with an embassy at
Karakorum. He is given an audience with
Möngke Khan, who is loaded with gifts and letters from Louis IX.[58]
The
Rhenish League, a confederation of trading cities, is established in the
Rhineland, Western Germany. The league (or Städtebund) comprises 59 cities.
August – Following the death of
Little Saint Hugh, in an instance of
blood libel, eighteen Jews of
Lincoln, are tortured and executed by royal command on suspicion of being involved in the boy's murder.[51]
A survey of royal privileges is conducted, which is included in the
Hundred Rolls, a census seen as a follow-up to the
Domesday Book (completed in
1086). The Hundred Rolls is later completed with two larger surveys, in 1274/75 and 1279/80.[61]
Orlando Bonsignori, an Italian minor merchant, forms a consortium called the Gran Tavola ("Great Table"), which becomes the most powerful bank in western
Europe. He becomes the exclusive banker for the deposits of the income of the
Papal States.[62]
Spring – Mongol forces (some 80,000 men), under
Hulagu Khan, cross the
Oxus River, and begin their campaign to destroy the remaining Muslim states in southwestern
Asia – with the first objectives being the
Nizari Ismaili strongholds and
Baghdad, the capital of the
Abbasid Caliphate. The roads across
Turkestan and
Persia are repaired, and bridges built. Carts are requisitioned to bring siege machines from
China.[63]
October – Mongol forces led by
Baiju Noyan (operating under Hulagu Khan's command) win a victory over
Kaykaus II, Seljuk ruler of the
Sultanate of Rum, and capture
Anatolia. Kaykaus flees to the Byzantine court where he seeks refuge at
Constantinople. The
Empire of Trebizond fearing a potential punitive Mongol expedition, becomes a vassal state and is forced to pay a
tribute tax every year in gold and silk.[64]
November 8–
23 –
Siege of Maymun-Diz: Mongol forces under Hulagu Khan successfully besiege the mountain castle of
Maymun-Diz. Hulagu encircles the fortress and begins a bombardment for three days by
mangonels from a nearby hilltop. On
November 19, Nizari Isma'ili imam
Rukn al-Din Khurshah surrenders, but a small part of the garrison refuses and fights a
last stand, until they are killed after three days.[65]
December 15 – Mongol forces under Hulagu Khan capture and dismantle
Alamut Castle (near the
Masoudabad region) after the surrender of the Nizari Ismaili leaders. Hulagu founds the
Ilkhanate dynasty of Persia, which becomes one of the four main divisions of the
Mongol Empire. The Nizari Ismaili government is disestablished, some of them migrate to
Afghanistan,
Badakhshan and
Sindh (modern
Pakistan).
Prince
Llywelyn ap Gruffudd invades the northern coastal areas that have agreed to English rule (see
1254).
Edward (the Lord Edward), who has been given the areas to govern himself by his father, King
Henry III, asks him for support but Henry refuses.
Venetian–Genoese War: A dispute between
Venice and
Genoa arises about concerning land in
Acre owned by
Mar Saba but claimed by both Venice and Genoa – which leads to a Genoese attack of the monastery in the Venetian quarter. The Venetians are supported by
Pisa and the
Knights Templar, while the Genoese are joined by the
Knights Hospitaller.[68]
Asia
October – The Japanese
Kenchō era ends and the
Kōgen era begins during the reign of the 13-year-old Emperor
Go-Fukakusa.
Battle of Cadfan: An English expeditionary army under
Stephen Bauzan is ambushed and defeated by Welsh forces. The English are decimated by devastating guerilla attacks and the Welsh capture the English supply train. Stephen Bauzan is killed along with some 1,000–3,000 of his men. The remaining English flee the battle, Prince
Llywelyn ap Gruffudd is said to have been present at the battle, collecting spoils from the fallen English army. According to sources, it is one of the greatest victories of a Welsh army in the field against a much more powerful English force.[72]
King
Henry III orders the production of a
twenty pence, English coin of pure gold. Unfortunately, the
bullion value of the coins is about 20% higher than the nominal face value, leading to poor circulation, as coins are melted down by individuals for their gold content.
Henry III relents to the demands of his son
Edward (the Lord Edward) for assistance to fight the Welsh (see
1256). He joins him on a campaign to retake the territories lost to the Welsh forces led by Llywelyn ap Gruffudd.
Venetian–Genoese War: The Venetian fleet under Admiral
Lorenzo Tiepolo breaks through the harbour chain at
Acre and destroys several Genoese ships. He also attacks the fortifications but Tiepolo is unable to expel the Genoese garrison (some 800 men strong and armed with 50–60
ballistae), from their quarter of the city throwing up a blockade.[74]
Spring – Mongol forces under
Uriyangkhadai conduct a campaign against local
Yi and Lolo tribes in
Vietnam. He returns to
Gansu and sends messengers to the court of
Möngke Khan informing him that
Yunnan is firmly under Mongolian control. Möngke Khan honors and rewards Uriyangkhadai for his military achievements.[75]
Matthew Paris, English monk and chronicler, personally interviews Henry III for an entire week while compiling his major work of English history, Chronica Majora.
Natural Disaster
Samalas eruption: Mount Samalas volcano erupts on
Lombok Island,
Indonesia. One of the
largest volcanic eruptions in the past 10,000 years, it creates severe climatic changes across the globe, leading to severe
famine and death, and to one of the biggest geopolitical changes across the globe over the next few centuries.[78][79]
February 10 –
Siege of Baghdad: Mongol forces (some 150,000 men), led by
Hulagu Khan, besiege and conquer
Baghdad after a siege of 13 days. During the first week of February, the eastern walls begin to collapse, and the Mongols swarm into the city, on
February 10. Caliph
Al-Musta'sim surrenders himself to Hulagu – together with all the Abbasid chief officers and officials. They are ordered to lay down their arms, and are massacred. Hulagu imprisons Al-Musta'sim among his treasures, to starve him to death. Meanwhile, massacres continue throughout the whole city; in 40 days about 80,000 citizens are murdered. The only survivors are the ones who are hiding in cellars which are not discovered, and a number of attractive girls and boys who are kept to be slaves, and the Christian community, who take refuge in the churches which are left undisturbed, by the special orders of Hulagu's wife,
Doquz Khatun.[80]
February 15 – Hulagu Khan enters Baghdad, where many quarters of the city are ruined by fire. The
Great Library (or House of Wisdom) is destroyed, numerous precious book collections are thrown into the
Tigris River. Before the siege, about 400,000 manuscripts are rescued by
Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Persian
polymath and theologian, who takes them to
Maragheh (located in
East Azerbaijan Province). The sack of Baghdad brings an end to the
Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258) and the
Islamic Golden Age. Many professors, physicians, scientists, clerics, artists and lecturers are also massacred.
August 25 – George Mouzalon is assassinated in
Magnesia ad Sipylum, as part of a conspiracy led by Byzantine nobles, under future Emperor
Michael VIII (Palaiologos).
May 2 – King
Henry III accepts the demand of
Simon de Montfort and his baronial supporters that the government is reformed with a committee of 22 barons, including the king. As an act of faith, Simon de Montfort hands over his estates at
Odiham and
Kenilworth as part of the proposals. The
Provisions of Oxford establish baronial control of the government, also known as the
Oxford Parliament, on
June 11.[82][83]
June 25 –
Battle of Acre: The Genoese send an armada (some 50 galleys) to relieve the blockade at
Acre and ask for the assistance of
Philip of Montfort, lord of
Tyre, and the
Knights Hospitaller for a combined attack from the land side. The Genoese fleet's arrival takes the Venetians by surprise but the superior experience and seamanship result in a crushing Venetian victory, with half the Genoese ships lost. Later, the Genoese garrison is forced to abandon Acre.[84][85]
Asia
Mongol invasions of Vietnam: Mongol forces (some 30,000 men) under
Uriyangkhadai, son of
Subutai, invade
Vietnam. After many battles, the Vietnam army is routed and defeated. The senior leaders are able to escape on pre-prepared boats, while the remnants are destroyed on the banks of the
Red River. The Mongols occupy the capital city, Thăng Long (modern-day
Hanoi), and massacres the city's inhabitants, by the end of January.[86]
August 11 – While conducting a siege against the
Song Dynasty city known as
Fishing Town in the province of
Chongqing, China, the
MongolGreat Khan,
Möngke Khan, dies in the nearby hills. Persian, Chinese, and Mongol records have different accounts of how he died, including succumbing to an arrow wound received by a Chinese archer in the siege,
dysentery, and even a
cholera epidemic. His death sparks a succession crisis in the
Mongol Empire, while his brothers
Ariq Böke and
Kublai soon convene their own
kurultai to elect themselves as the next Khan of Khans, opening the path to a four–year-long
Toluid Civil War from
1260 to
1264. In the end, Ariq Böke surrenders to Kublai.[96][97]
While engaged in a war with the Mongols, the Song Chinese official Li Zengbo writes in his Kozhai Zagao, Xugaohou that the city of
Qingzhou is manufacturing one to two thousand strong
iron-casedgunpowder bomb shells a month, dispatching to
Xiangyang and Yingzhou about ten to twenty thousand such bombs at a time.[98]
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