Iran has one of the oldest histories in the world, extending more than 5000 years, and throughout history, Iran has been of
geostrategic importance because of its central location in
Eurasia and Western Asia. Iran is a founding member of the
UN,
NAM,
OIC,
OPEC, and
ECO. Iran as a major
regional power occupies an important position in the world economy due to its substantial reserves of
petroleum and
natural gas, and has considerable regional influence in Western Asia. The name Iran is a
cognate of Aryan and literally means "Land of the
Aryans." (Full article...)
Maurice's reign was troubled by almost constant warfare. After he became emperor, he brought the
war with Sasanian Persia to a
victorious conclusion. The empire's eastern border in the
South Caucasus was vastly expanded and, for the first time in nearly two centuries, the Romans were no longer obliged to pay the Persians thousands of pounds of gold annually for peace. (Full article...)
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The Iranian Enlightenment (
Persian: روشنگری ایرانی), sometimes called the first generation of intellectual movements in Iran (
Persian: نسل اول جنبش های روشنفکری در ایران), brought new ideas into traditional Iranian society from the mid-nineteenth to the early twentieth century. During the rule of the
Qajar dynasty, and especially after the defeat of Iran
in its war with the
Russian Empire, cultural exchanges led to the formation of new ideas among the educated class of Iran.The establishment of
Dar ul-Fonun, the first modern university in Iran and the arrival of foreign professors, caused the thoughts of
European thinkers to enter Iran, followed by the first signs of enlightenment and intellectual movements in Iran.
During this period, intellectual groups were formed in
secret societies and secret associations. These secret societies included Mirza Malkam Khan's
Faramosh Khaneh (based on
Masonic lodges),
Anjoman-e Okhovat,
Society of Humanity and
Mokhadarat Vatan Association. These groups spread their ideas by distributing leaflets and newspapers. These secret societies stressed the need to reform the land and administrative system and reduce the role of the clergy in society, as well as to limit the rulers within the framework of the law. (Full article...)
Abu al-Mughira Ziyad ibn Abihi (
Arabic: أبو المغيرة زياد بن أبيه,
romanized: Abū al-Mughīra Ziyād ibn Abīhi;
c. 622–673), also known as Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan (
Arabic: زياد بن أبي سفيان,
romanized: Ziyād ibn Abī Sufyān), was an administrator and statesman of the successive
Rashidun and
Umayyadcaliphates in the mid-7th century. He served as the governor of
Basra in 665–670 and ultimately the first governor of
Iraq and practical viceroy of the eastern Caliphate between 670 and his death.
Ziyad's parentage is obscure, but he was raised among the
Banu Thaqif in
Ta'if, near
Mecca. He arrived with his adoptive tribesmen in Basra upon its foundation in 636 as the Muslim Arabs' springboard for the
conquest of the Sasanian Empire. He was initially employed by the city's first governor,
Utba ibn Ghazwan al-Mazini, and was kept on as a scribe or secretary by his successors. Caliph
Ali (
r. 656–661) appointed Ziyad governor of
Fars to suppress a local rebellion and he maintained his loyalty to Ali's caliphate after the latter's assassination in 661 and the subsequent rule of Ali's opponent,
Mu'awiya I (
r. 661–680). The latter overcame Ziyad's opposition, formally recognized him as his own paternal half-brother and appointed him governor of Basra. Ziyad's inaugural speech, in which he announced his
carrot-and-stick approach to governing the city's turbulent population, is celebrated in Arab history for its eloquence. (Full article...)
The son of the governor of
Bust, Maymandi was raised as the
foster brother of the Ghaznavid prince Mahmud, and would first start his administrative career as the head of the department of correspondences of
Khorasan. He would thereafter rapidly rise to higher offices, finally becoming the vizier of the Ghaznavid dynasty in 1013, which would last until 1024, when he was arrested due to the great amount of wealth that he had gained, which the suspicious Mahmud disliked. (Full article...)
Bahram II (also spelled Wahram II or Warahran II;
Middle Persian: 𐭥𐭫𐭧𐭫𐭠𐭭) was the fifth
SasanianKing of Kings (shahanshah) of
Iran, from 274 to 293. He was the son and successor of
Bahram I (
r. 271–274). Bahram II, while still in his teens, ascended the throne with the aid of the powerful
Zoroastrian priest
Kartir, just like his father had done.
He was met with considerable challenges during his reign, facing a rebellion in the east led by his brother, the
Kushano-Sasanian dynast
Hormizd I Kushanshah, who also assumed the title of King of Kings and possibly laid claims to the Sasanian throne. Another rebellion, led by Bahram II's cousin
Hormizd of Sakastan in
Sakastan, also occurred around this period. In
Khuzestan, a Zoroastrian factional revolt led by a high-priest (mowbed) occurred. The
Roman emperor
Carus exploited the turbulent situation of Iran by launching a campaign into its holdings in
Mesopotamia in 283. Bahram II, who was in the east, was unable to mount an effective coordinated defense at the time, possibly losing his capital of
Ctesiphon to the Roman emperor. However, Carus died soon afterwards, reportedly being struck by lightning. As a result, the Roman army withdrew, and Mesopotamia was reclaimed by the Sasanians. By the end of his reign, Bahram II had made peace with the Roman emperor
Diocletian and put an end to the disturbances in Khuzestan and the east. (Full article...)
Image 6
Vologases IV's portrait on the obverse of a
tetradrachm, showing him wearing a beard and a
tiara on his head
Vologases IV (
Parthian: 𐭅𐭋𐭂𐭔Walagash) was
King of Kings of the
Parthian Empire from 147 to 191. He was the son of
Mithridates V (
r. 129–140). Vologases spent the early years of his reign re-asserting Parthian control over the
Kingdom of Characene. From 161 to 166, he waged war against the Roman Empire; although initially successful, conquering
Armenia and
Syria, he was eventually pushed back, briefly losing control of the Parthian capitals of
Seleucia and
Ctesiphon to the Romans. The Romans suffered heavy losses from a plague erupting from Seleucia in 166, forcing them to withdraw. The war ended soon afterward, with Vologases losing most of northern
Mesopotamia to the Romans. He died in 191 and was succeeded by his son
Vologases V. (Full article...)
Image 7
"Alexander executes Janushyar and Mahiyar, the slayers of Darius." Folio from a manuscript of
Ferdowsi's Shahnameh ("Book of Kings"), created in
Shiraz, dated 1482.
Bessus or Bessos (
Old Persian: *Bayaçā;
Greek: Βήσσος), also known by his throne name Artaxerxes V (
Old Persian: 𐎠𐎼𐎫𐎧𐏁𐏂𐎠Artaxšaçāʰ;
Greek: Ἀρταξέρξης; died summer 329 BC), was a
Persiansatrap of the eastern
Achaemenid satrapy of
Bactria, as well as the self-proclaimed
King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire from 330 to 329 BC.
A member of the ruling
Achaemenid dynasty, Bessus came to power shortly after killing the legitimate Achaemenid ruler
Darius III (
r. 336–330 BC), and subsequently attempted to hold the eastern part of the empire against the
Macedonian king
Alexander the Great (
r. 336–323 BC). His realm quickly started to fall apart, including Bactria, which was the main center. Fleeing into
Sogdia, he was arrested by his own officers, who handed him over to Alexander, who had him executed at
Ecbatana. (Full article...)
Darius ascended the throne by overthrowing the Achaemenid monarch
Bardiya (or Smerdis), who he claimed was in fact an imposter named
Gaumata. The new king met with rebellions throughout the empire but quelled each of them; a major event in Darius's life was his expedition to subjugate
Greece and punish
Athens and
Eretria for their participation in the
Ionian Revolt. Although his campaign ultimately resulted in failure at the
Battle of Marathon, he succeeded in the re-subjugation of
Thrace and expanded the Achaemenid Empire through his conquests of
Macedonia, the
Cyclades, and the island of
Naxos. (Full article...)
During the latter part of his father's reign, Pacorus ruled the Parthian Empire along with him. After Vologases I's death in 78, Pacorus became the sole ruler, but was quickly met by a revolt by his brother
Vologases II, which lasted until the latter's defeat in 80. In 79/80, Pacorus' rule was contended by another Parthian prince—
Artabanus III—whom he had defeated by 81. A third Parthian contender,
Osroes I, appeared in 109. The following year, Pacorus was succeeded by his son
Vologases III, who continued his father's struggle with Osroes I over the Parthian crown. (Full article...)
Image 10
The Cappadocian calendar is a
solar calendar derived from the Persian
Zoroastrian calendar. It is named after the historic region
Cappadocia in present-day Turkey, where it was used. The calendar, which had 12 months of 30 days each and five
epagomenal days, originated between 550 and 330 BC, when Cappadocia was part of the Persian
Achaemenid Empire. The Cappadocian calendar was identical to the Zoroastrian calendar; this can be seen in its structure, in the
Avestan names and in the order of the months. The Cappadocian calendar reflects the Iranian cultural influence in the region. Extant evidence of the calendar dates back to
Late Antiquity through the accounts of Greek astronomers, by which time it had already been adapted to the
Julian calendar. (Full article...)
...that, in connection with the 7th-century Turkic conquest of Aghvania, the invaders were reported "to suck the children's blood like milk"?
...that a shrine in
Shiraz over the tomb(pictured) of the famed
Persian poetHafez was pulled down in 1899 by protesters, because it was being built by a
Zoroastrian?
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá (/əbˈdʊlbəˈhɑː/;
Persian: عبد البهاء, 23 May 1844 – 28 November 1921), born ʻAbbás (
Persian: عباس), was the eldest son of
Baháʼu'lláh and served as head of the
Baháʼí Faith from 1892 until 1921. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was later canonized as the last of three "central figures" of the religion, along with Baháʼu'lláh and the
Báb, and his writings and authenticated talks are regarded as sources of Baháʼí sacred literature.
He was born in
Tehran to an
aristocratic family. At the age of eight his father was imprisoned during a government crackdown on the
Bábí Faith and the family's possessions were looted, leaving them in virtual poverty. His father was exiled from their native Iran, and the family went to live in
Baghdad, where they stayed for nine years. They were later called by the
Ottoman state to
Istanbul before going into another period of confinement in
Edirne and finally the prison-city of
ʻAkká (Acre). ʻAbdu'l-Bahá remained a political prisoner there until the
Young Turk Revolution freed him in 1908 at the age of 64. He then made several
journeys to the West to spread the Baháʼí message beyond its middle-eastern roots, but the onset of
World War I left him largely confined to
Haifa from 1914 to 1918. The war replaced the openly hostile Ottoman authorities with the
British Mandate, who appointed him a
Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire for his help in averting famine following the war. (Full article...)
Iranian Armed Forces are the largest in the
Middle East in terms of active troops. Iran's military forces are made up of approximately 610,000
active-duty personnel plus 350,000
reserve and trained personnel that can be mobilized when needed, bringing the country's military manpower to about 960,000 total personnel. These numbers do not include
Law Enforcement Command or
Basij. (Full article...)
The fortified site, which is located on a hill created by the outflow of a calcium-rich spring pond, was recognized as a
World Heritage Site in July 2003. The citadel includes the remains of
Adur Gushnasp, a
Zoroastrianfire temple built during the
Sassanid period and partially rebuilt (as a mosque) during the
Ilkhanid period. This temple housed one of the three "
Great Fires" or "Royal Fires" that Sassanid rulers humbled themselves before in order to ascend the throne. The fire at Takht-i Soleiman was called
Adur Gushnasp and was dedicated to the arteshtar or warrior class of the Sasanid. A 4th century
Armenian manuscript relating to
Jesus and
Zarathustra, and various
historians of the
Islamic period, mention this pond. The foundations of the fire temple around the pond is attributed to that legend. Takht-E Soleyman appears on the 4th century
Peutinger Map. (Full article...)
Image 4
Geographically, the country of
Iran is located in West Asia and borders the
Caspian Sea,
Persian Gulf, and
Gulf of Oman. Topographically, it is predominantly located on the
Persian Plateau. Its mountains have impacted both the political and the economic history of the country for several centuries. The mountains enclose several broad
basins, on which major agricultural and urban settlements are located. Until the 20th century, when major
highways and railroads were constructed through the mountains to connect the population centers, these basins tended to be relatively isolated from one another. Typically, one major town dominated each basin, and there were complex economic relationships between the town and the hundreds of villages that surrounded it. In the higher elevations of the mountains rimming the basins, tribally organized groups practiced
transhumance, moving with their herds of sheep and goats between traditionally established summer and winter
pastures. There are no major river systems in the country, and historically transportation was by means of caravans that followed routes traversing gaps and passes in the mountains. The mountains also impeded easy access to the Persian Gulf and the
Caspian Sea. (Full article...)
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The Uprising of Sheikh Ubeydullah refers to a Kurdish uprising against the
Ottoman Empire in 1879 and
Qajar Iran between 1880 and 1881. Both uprising were led by
Sheikh Ubeydullah, the leader of the Semdinan
Naqshbandi family who claimed descendance from
Mohammed through his daughter
Fatima. Thus the family had a considerable influence, disposed over large amounts of donations, owned several villages in the region and many Kurdish tribal leaders were devout followers of him. The initial cause for the uprisings were the outcome of the
Russo-Turkish war in 1877-78 and the
Treaty of Berlin which provided the Christian
Armenians and the
Nestorians with considerable rights and autonomy, to which he did not agree to. (Full article...)
An engineer and teacher from a poor background, ideologically shaped by thinkers such as
Navvab Safavi,
Jalal Al-e-Ahmad and
Ahmad Fardid, Ahmadinejad joined the
Office for Strengthening Unity after the
Iranian Revolution. Appointed a provincial governor in 1993, he was replaced along with all other provincial governors in 1997 after the election of President
Mohammad Khatami and returned to teaching.
Tehran's council elected him mayor in 2003. He took a religious hard line, reversing reforms of previous moderate mayors. His 2005 presidential campaign, supported by the
Alliance of Builders of Islamic Iran, garnered 62% of the
runoff election votes, and he became president on 3 August 2005. (Full article...)
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The Tehran Stock Exchange (TSE) (
Persian: بورس اوراق بهادار تهران,
romanized: Burs-e Owraq-e Bahadar-e Tehran) is
Iran's largest stock exchange, which first opened in 1967. The TSE is based in
Tehran. , 666 companies with a combined market capitalization of US$1.45 trillion were listed on TSE. TSE, which is a founding member of the
Federation of Euro-Asian Stock Exchanges, has been one of the world's best performing stock exchanges in the years 2002 through 2013. TSE is an
emerging or
"frontier" market.
The Second Herat War (late March 1856–26 October 1856) was the invasion of the surrounding realm of
Herat and the successful siege of its citadel by the Qajar army led by
Hesam o-Saltaneh, Soltan Morad Mirza. The 1856 siege was part of the concerted Qajar effort to compensate the recent territorial losses in the Russo-Persian Wars of
1804–1813 and
1826–1828 by reconquering western Afghanistan, which had historically been a part of Persia's domain. The conflict was also a part of the broader
Great Game between the
British Empire and the
Russian Empire.
The Persian expedition into Herat was contrary to an agreement with the
United Kingdom signed by
Naser al-Din Shah in January 1853. According to this agreement, the Persian Government would refrain from sending troops to or interfering in the internal affairs of Herat. The siege was a major point of contention in the breakdown of Anglo-Persian relations and eventually became the catalyst for the
Anglo-Persian War. After successfully capturing Herat, British agents were either expelled from Persia or left on their own accord. Despite dispatching
Farrokh Khan Ghaffari to negotiate a diplomatic solution, the British were already preparing military action against Persia by July 1856. The British would inevitably issue a declaration of war on Persia from
Calcutta on 1 November 1856. The Persian army would continue to occupy Herat and would only leave in compliance with the
Treaty of Paris that ended the Anglo-Persian War. However, the Persian government managed to install
Sultan Ahmad Khan as the puppet ruler of Herat prior to the ratification of the peace treaty with Britain. (Full article...)
The memoir was recorded through thousands of hours of conversation between Zahra Hosseini and Azam Hosseini, while parts of the book are autobiography by the narrator. The title, Da, means "mother" in
Kurdish and
Luri, and was meant to memorialize the role of Iranian mothers during the
Iran–Iraq War. (Full article...)
The president is required to gain the Supreme Leader's official approval before being sworn in by the
Parliament and the Supreme Leader has the power to dismiss the elected president if he has either been impeached by Parliament or found guilty of a constitutional violation by the Supreme Court. The president carries out the decrees, and answers to the Supreme Leader, who functions as the country's
head of state. Unlike the executive in other countries, the president of Iran does not have full control over the government, which is ultimately under the direct control of the Supreme Leader. Before
elections, the nominees must be approved by the
guardian council to become a president candidate. Members of the
guardian council are chosen by the supreme leader. The president of Iran is elected for a four-year term by
direct vote and is not permitted to run for more than two consecutive terms. (Full article...)
April 24–
April 25,
1980 –
Operation Eagle Claw, a commando mission in
Iran to rescue American embassy hostages, is aborted after mechanical problems ground the rescue helicopters. Eight
United States troops are killed in a mid-air collision during the failed operation.
There are approximately 100,000 clerics in Iran and over 60,000 of them are in Qom. Most of them are theology students who have been studying there for many years, between 10-25 years on average.... Every student has to study a minimum of 25 years before he can attain the status of ‘ayatollah’, however most students spend 10 years studying in the hawza.
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