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Kamula–Elevala | |
---|---|
Kamula–Elevala River | |
Geographic distribution | northern Western Province, Papua New Guinea |
Linguistic classification | Trans–New Guinea |
Proto-language | Proto-Kamula–Elevala |
Subdivisions |
|
Glottolog | kamu1264 |
Map: The Awin–Pa–Kamula languages of New Guinea
The Awin–Pa and Kamula languages
Other Trans–New Guinea languages
Other Papuan languages
Austronesian languages
Uninhabited |
The Kamula–Elevala languages are a small family of the Trans–New Guinea languages spoken in the region of the Elevala River.
There are three languages, namely Aekyowm (Awin), Pare (Pa), and Kamula. They are not obviously related to each other, but Aekyowm and Pare are closer to each other than to Kamula. [2]
A more in-depth classification by Suter and Usher (2017) is as follows. [2]
Stephen Wurm (1975) added Awin and Pa to an expanded Central and South New Guinea branch of TNG, a position reversed by Ross (2005). The connection between Awin–Pa and Kamula was established by Suter & Usher. [3]
Proto-Kamula–Elevala | |
---|---|
Reconstruction of | Kamula–Elevala languages |
Reconstructed ancestors |
Usher (2020) reconstructs the consonant and vowel inventories as follows: [1]
Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | *m | *n | |||
Plosive | voiceless | *p (or *h) | *t | *k | |
voiced | *b (or *p) | *d | *g | ||
Fricative | *s | ||||
Semivowel | *w | *j |
Front | Central | Back | |
---|---|---|---|
Close | *i | *u | |
Close-mid | *e | *o | |
Open-mid | *ɔ | ||
Open | *æ | *a |
There is also the diphthong *ai.
Usher (2020) reconstructs the Awin–Pa pronouns as: [1]
sg | du | pl | |
---|---|---|---|
1 | *nɔ | *ni, *ki | |
2 | *go | *gi | |
3 | *jɔ |
In the 1du, Awin has /ki/ and Pare /ni/, /niki/, /nigi/. The Kamula singular forms are quite similar (na, wa, je), but it does not have the dual.
Some Proto-Kamula-Elevala lexical reconstructions by Usher (2020) are: [1]
gloss | Proto-Kamula-Elevala |
---|---|
head | *ke̝ba |
ear | *m[ɔ/o̝]d[ɔ/o̝] |
eye | *kinɔ |
nose | *kine̝ |
tusk/tooth | *bate̝ |
tongue/flame | *taⁱ |
knee/leg | *tama |
bone | *ke̝dɔ |
louse | *awV |
dog | *ti |
pig | *m₂aⁱnæ |
bird | *te̝ja |
egg/fruit/seed | *m[ɔ/o̝]k[ɔ/o̝] |
tree | *je̝ |
man | *k[ɔ/o̝]b[a/ɔ] |
sun/day | *gani |
stone | *ike̝ |
name | *pi |
eat/drink | *de̝- |
one | *tV[n/d]o̝ |
Below are all of the lexical reconstructions of Proto-Kamula-Elevala from Suter and Usher (2017):
[2]
gloss | Proto-Kamula-Elevala |
---|---|
house | *aja |
mushroom | *ap(ɔ,o) |
hear | *dade- |
where? | *dai |
sago | *daja |
eat, drink | *de- |
burn, cook | *du- |
middle | *dunu |
brother | *ei |
sun, day | *gani |
belly, bowels | *gene |
leech | *gimada |
hold | *hamV- |
upright | *hane |
name | *hi |
light (in weight) | *hodoka |
stand, stay | *hV- |
sago thatch | *jeme |
hit | *jV- |
bone | *kedɔ |
man | *kopo |
now, today | *kwa- |
thigh | *madina |
shoulder | *makæ |
know | *maN(æ,a)- |
teeth, mouth | *mat(e,i) |
kindle | *mi- |
son, child | *mi |
body | *mot(e,i) |
joint | *mu |
tusk | *patæ |
skin disease | *peseni |
die | *po- |
tie, wrap | *podi |
pierce, burst | *poko- |
heart, pity | *pɔdɔw(e,a) |
be soft | *pɔpɔtæ- |
close eyes | *pudi- |
sit | *pV- |
speech | *sa |
rafter | *saka |
paddle | *sode |
tongue | *tai |
afternoon | *tamide |
make, do | *ti- |
embers | *tine |
bow (for arrows) | *tɔ |
upstream | *t(ɔ,o)t(ɔ,o) |
thorn | *tu |
banana | *tuma |
go | *tV- |
one | *tVdo |
illicit | *u |
scar | *ud(e,i) |
urine | *ute |
grub | *wæja |
left (hand) | *weke |
Proto-Elevala reconstructions from Suter and Usher (2017): [2]
gloss | Proto-Elevala |
---|---|
hand, arm | *a |
lie down | *æ- |
sand | *daNi |
give | *dæ- |
flea | *dideme |
meat | *dinæ |
testicles | *dipɔ |
crocodile | *dope |
sap, juice | *dɔdæ |
fingernail | *d(ɔ,a)kæ |
see | *dV- |
sugarcane | *ga |
beak | *ga |
sing | *gi- |
gums | *gine |
younger brother | *gɔmɔde |
cut | *gu |
stick | *gum(ɔ,a) |
count | *hiakV- |
breath | *hine |
do, make | *hɔmV- |
carry on head | *i- |
stone | *ike |
song | *jɔkæ |
set on fire | *kamV- |
leg | *kate |
beetle | *kiame |
thunder | *kima(ti) |
nose | *kine |
face | *kiNɔ-namæ58 |
white | *kɔnV-kaina59 |
coconut | *kɔpɔkæ |
pig | *mainæ |
head | *mini |
below | *moka |
fish | *mone |
stem | *moNæ |
what? | *na |
cane mail shirt | *napo |
charcoal | *o |
drum | *pi |
heavy | *piena |
buttocks | *po |
smell | *pɔmæ |
bride price | *puNe |
goanna | *sɔNɔmæ |
yesterday | *te |
sago thatch | *temæ |
rattan | *tike |
ground, earth | *tɔ |
wild | *tɔna |
The following basic vocabulary words are from McElhanon & Voorhoeve (1970), [4] Shaw (1973), [5] and Shaw (1986), [6] as cited in the Trans-New Guinea database: [7]
gloss | Pare | Aekyom |
---|---|---|
head | keba; kiba | pɔƀe |
hair | osɛ; ouse | tɛnɛ |
ear | mogamɛ; mogo; mɔgɔ | kɛndɔkɛ |
eye | kere-mo; kinemo; kinemɔ | krO-ŋɛ |
nose | kene; kine | koe |
tooth | male; marɛ; pɛrɛ | pʰɛtɛ |
tongue | tɛ | tiː |
leg | tamakali | |
louse | kiba ʔo; kiba ʔɔ; ɔ | huɔlɛ |
dog | ti; til | psane |
pig | mele | |
bird | tie; tiye | |
egg | moʔo; mɔʔɔ | |
blood | sowo; sɔwɔ | |
bone | ko; kɔ | kro |
skin | sia; siga; siya | kare |
breast | bu | tutɛ |
tree | i̧; ĩ | de; doe |
man | kobo | |
woman | wigi | |
sun | gẽnɛ̃; gine | toe |
moon | abi | |
water | mɔa; omɛ; ɔmɔɛ; ume | waɛ |
fire | ne; nɛ | de; doe |
stone | iebɔ; iyebo | |
road, path | utigi | tɛnɛ |
name | hi | hi |
eat | da; denu; de-nu | də |
one | oteso; ɔtesɔ | |
two | diyabo; diyabɔ | |
String Bag | dissa; disaɔ |
Proposed Awin–Pa reflexes of proto-Trans-New Guinea (pTNG) etyma: [8]
Loanwords between Kamula and Doso: [2]
No. | Kamula | Doso | Turumsa |
---|---|---|---|
1 | 'father' | [a:] 'father' | [a:] 'father' |
2 | 'mother' | ['wai] 'mother' | ['wai] 'mother' |
3 | 'older brother' | ['bapa] 'older brother' | |
4 | 'older sister' | ['nana] 'older sister' | |
5 | 'blood' | ['omari] 'blood' | |
6 | 'stomach' | [kù'ko] 'belly (outside)' | |
7 | 'wallaby' | [ka'pia] 'wallaby' | [kapia] 'wallaby' |
8 | 'cassowary' | [wa:taɾa] 'cassowary' | [wa:taɾa] 'cassowary' |
9 | 'cloud' | ['waɾa] 'cloud' | |
10 | 'sand' | ['asiɾa] 'sand' |
Aekyom loanwords from Ok languages: [2]
No. | Aekyom | Mountain Ok | Lowland Ok |
---|---|---|---|
1 | [mon] 'rubbish' | *mɔːn 'rubbish, compost' | |
2 | [ɺoŋ] 'garden newly felled' | *ɾaŋg 'garden' | *joŋg 'garden' |
3 | [khno] 'canoe' | *kono 'canoe' | |
4 | [ambum(e)] 'turtle' | *ambɔːm 'turtle species' | *ambom 'turtle' |
5 | [khwiɺe] 'hornbill' | *kaweːɾ ' Papuan hornbill' | *kaweɾ 'hornbill' |
6 | [ubine] ' rhinoceros beetle' | *umiːn ' rhinoceros beetle' | |
7 | [mom] 'nephew, maternal' | *mɔːm 'mother's brother' | *mom 'mother's brother' |
8 | [ahwoe] 'grandmother' | *ap(e,o)ːk 'grandmother' | *apok 'grandmother' |
9 | [khendoke] 'outer ear' | *kindɔːŋg 'inner ear' | *kende 'ear' |
10 | [mgat-ɺam] 'in the mouth' | *maŋgat 'mouth, chin' | *maŋgot 'mouth' |
Kamula loanwords from Aramia River languages: [2]
No. | Kamula | Waruna | Gogodala |
---|---|---|---|
1 | 'taro' | [bibi] 'taro' | [bibi] 'taro' |
2 | 'yam' | [waisa] 'yam' | |
3 | 'canoe' | [gwawa] 'canoe' | [gawa] 'canoe' |
4 | 'paddle, oar' | [keari] 'paddle' | [keari] 'paddle' |
5 | 'chicken' | [kakaba] 'fowl' | |
6 | 'breadfruit' | [kawaki] 'breadfruit' |
Potential cognates between Kamula–Elevala and Awyu–Dumut (Healey 1970 [9]): [2]
Awyu–Dumut (Healey 1970) | Kamula–Elevala |
---|---|
pAD *dat- 'hear' | pKE *dade- 'hear' |
pAD *do- 'be cooked' | pKE *du- 'burn, cook' |
pAD *ɛdex- 'give' | pE *dæ- 'give' |
pAD *füp 'name' | pKE *hi 'name' |
pAD *göp 'you (sg.)' | pE *go 'you (sg.)' |
pAD *ket 'flower' | Pa [ke] 'blossom' |
pAD *mak 'shoulder' | pKE *makæ 'shoulder' |
pAD *nop 'I' | pE *nɔ 'I' |
pAD *or 'excreta, intestines' | Kamula /o/ 'abdomen, belly' |
pAD *xaiban 'head' | Pa [keba] 'head' |
pAD *xop 'male, man' | pKE *kopo 'man' |
pAD *yin 'tree, wood, fire' | Pa [ẽ] 'tree' |
pA *bu 'buttocks' | pE *po 'buttocks' |
pA *dübe, *dübi 'island' | Aekyom [dupi] 'island' |
pA *düb(-ro) 'heart' | Kamula 'heart' |
pA *makan, *mokan 'low, beneath' | pE *moka 'below' |
pA *midi(n) 'thigh' | pKE *madina 'thigh' |
pA *wün 'liver' | Pa [wumɛ] 'liver' |
pA *xui(-to) 'sky' | Aekyom [khwoe] 'sky, heaven' |
pD *ba- 'sit' | pKE *pV- 'sit' |
pD *kumöt 'thunder' | pE *kima(ti) 'thunder' |