British chemist
Christopher Joseph Schofield (also known as Chris Schofield) is a Professor of Chemistry at the
University of Oxford
[1] and a
Fellow of the Royal Society . Chris Schofield is a professor of
organic chemistry at the
University of Oxford, Department of Chemistry
[2] and a Fellow of
Hertford College .
[3] Schofield studied functional, structural and mechanistic understanding of
enzymes that employ oxygen and
2-oxoglutarate as a co-substrate.
[4] His work has opened up new possibilities in
antibiotic research,
[5] oxygen sensing,
[6] and
gene regulation .
[7]
After work on plant and microbial
oxygenases ,
[4] he studied uncharacterised human oxygenases.
[8] His research has identified unanticipated roles for
oxygenases
[9] in regulating
gene expression , importantly in the cellular
hypoxic response,
[10] and has revealed new
post-translational modifications to
chromatin and
RNA splicing proteins.
[11] The work has identified new opportunities for medicinal intervention.
[12]
Education
Chris Schofield attended
St Anselm's College catholic
grammar school in Merseyside, then studied for a Bachelor of Science in
chemistry at the
University of Manchester and graduated with a first class honour (1979–1982). In 1982, he moved to
Oxford to study for a
DPhil with Professor
Jack E. Baldwin . In 1985, he became a Departmental Demonstrator in the
Dyson Perrins Laboratory ,
Oxford University followed by his appointment as a Lecturer in
Chemistry
[2] and a
Fellow of
Hertford College
[3] in 1990. In 1998, he became professor of
Chemistry ,
[1] and in 2011 he was appointed the Head of Organic Chemistry
[13] at the
Department of Chemistry , University of Oxford. In 2013, he was elected a
Fellow of the Royal Society , FRS.
[14]
Research
The work in laboratory of Chris Schofield focuses on different areas of research, including:
Molecular Mechanisms of the Hypoxic Response
Hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) is a heterodimeric α,β-transcriptional complex
[15] that mediates the cellular response to oxygen availability in multi-cellular organisms,
[6]
[16] ranging from the simplest known animal
Trichoplax adhaerens to humans.
[4]
[6]
[17]
[18]
[19] Investigating the structures and mechanisms of the
HIF prolyl hydroxylases is a current focus of the work.
[10]
[20] The group solved crystal structures of PHD2
[9]
[21] - one of the human
prolyl hydroxylases - and discovered that the HIF asparaginyl hydroxylase also catalyses hydroxylation of conserved motifs,
[22] the
ankyrin repeat domain.
Chemical Basis of Epigenetics
A current focus of the group is modification of histones, in particular oxygenase catalysed
N -demethylation of histone methylated-
lysine residues
[7]
[23] – in collaboration with the
Structural Genomics Consortium . The
histone demethylases
[24]
[25] are of interest both with respect to their links to diseases, including cancer
[26]
[27] and
inflammatory diseases ,
[28] as well as the role of methylation in
transcriptional regulation .
[29] Recent areas of interest include the fat mass and obesity protein
[30]
[31] which was shown to be a
nucleic acid demethylase
[32] and
JMJD6
[33]
[34] which is a lysyl hydroxylase modifying
RNA splicing protein.
[11]
Structural and Functional Studies on 2OG Oxygenases
The
2-oxoglutarate (2OG)-dependent oxygenases are a superfamily of non-haem iron dependent
oxygenases ,
[35] most of which use the
Krebs cycle intermediate,
2OG , as a
co-substrate .
[36] The group are interested in understanding these enzymes
[37] for their ability to catalyse synthetically difficult or 'impossible' reactions (e.g. the
stereoselective
hydroxylation of unactivated
carbon-hydrogen bonds), for their diverse physiological roles,
[8] and for their links to disease.
[38] The research focuses on members of the family that are linked to disease, or can be targeted for the treatment of disease.
[39]
[40] Techniques involved in this interdisciplinary research include
proteomics ,
[41]
X-ray crystallography ,
[42]
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy,
[43]
[44]
[45]
[46]
[47] biological
mass spectrometry ,
[48]
molecular biology ,
[49]
enzyme kinetics ,
[50]
[51]
protein-directed dynamic combinatorial chemistry
[52]
[53] and
organic synthesis /
medicinal chemistry .
[54]
[55]
Antibiotics: Biosynthesis and Resistance Mechanisms
Most clinically used
antibiotics are based upon
natural products .
[5] The most important family of antibiotics contains a
β-lactam ring, and includes the
penicillin ,
[56]
cephalosporin ,
clavam ,
[57] and
carbapenem
[58]
antibiotics . The group's biosynthetic work has focused on the
clavams
[59] and
carbapenems ,
[58] with a particular focus being on the mechanism and structures of enzymes that catalyse chemically 'interesting' steps.
[60]
[61] The biggest threat to the continued use of
β-lactam
antibiotics is that of bacterial resistance. Schofield is currently working on the design and
synthesis of
enzyme inhibitors
[62]
[63]
[64]
[65] for the metallo
β-lactamases
[66] – there are no clinically used inhibitor
[67] of these enzymes but they pose a significant threat as they catalyse the hydrolysis of almost all clinically used
β-lactam
antibiotics .
[68] A particular interest involves human metallo
β-lactamases which share the same fold.
[69]
Awards and honours
2015-2020:
Wellcome Trust Advanced Investigator Award (with Sir Peter Ratcliffe)
2013:
Fellow of the Royal Society (London);
[14] Member of
EMBO ;
Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology , UK; Member of the
Biochemical Society ; Member of the
Society for Experimental Biology , UK
2012: Finalist –
Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council 'Innovator of the Year'
[70]
2011:
Royal Society of Chemistry , Jeremy Knowles Award, UK;
[71] Highly cited paper awards (e.g.
Biochemical Journal , Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters)
2009 – 2014: PI of ERC Advanced Investigator Grant SPA GA 2008 233240 (with Sir Peter Ratcliffe); Molecular Mechanism of Oxygen Sensing by Enzymes (MOOSE)
2000:
Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry (London)
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"Structure of the Ribosomal Oxygenase OGFOD1 Provides Insights into the Regio- and Stereoselectivity of Prolyl Hydroxylases" . Structure . 23 (4): 639–652.
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^
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b Hon, Wai-Ching; Wilson, Michael I.; Harlos, Karl; Claridge, Timothy D. W.; Schofield, Christopher J.; Pugh, Christopher W.; Maxwell, Patrick H.; Ratcliffe, Peter J.; Stuart, David I. (27 June 2002). "Structural basis for the recognition of hydroxyproline in HIF-1α by pVHL". Nature . 417 (6892): 975–978.
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^
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^
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b
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^ Wilkins, Sarah E.; Abboud, Martine I.; Hancock, Rebecca L.; Schofield, Christopher J. (19 April 2016).
"Targeting Protein–Protein Interactions in the HIF System" . ChemMedChem . 11 (8): 773–786.
doi :
10.1002/cmdc.201600012 .
ISSN
1860-7187 .
PMC
4848768 .
PMID
26997519 .
^ Jaakkola, Panu; Mole, David R.; Tian, Ya-Min; Wilson, Michael I.; Gielbert, Janine; Gaskell, Simon J.; Kriegsheim, Alexander von; Hebestreit, Holger F.; Mukherji, Mridul (20 April 2001).
"Targeting of HIF-α to the von Hippel-Lindau Ubiquitylation Complex by O2-Regulated Prolyl Hydroxylation" . Science . 292 (5516): 468–472.
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2001Sci...292..468J .
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10.1126/science.1059796 .
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0036-8075 .
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11292861 .
S2CID
20914281 .
^ Epstein, Andrew C. R.; Gleadle, Jonathan M.; McNeill, Luke A.; Hewitson, Kirsty S.; O'Rourke, John; Mole, David R.; Mukherji, Mridul; Metzen, Eric; Wilson, Michael I. (5 October 2001).
"C. elegans EGL-9 and Mammalian Homologs Define a Family of Dioxygenases that Regulate HIF by Prolyl Hydroxylation" . Cell . 107 (1): 43–54.
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PMID
11595184 .
^ Ge, Wei; Wolf, Alexander; Feng, Tianshu; Ho, Chia-hua; Sekirnik, Rok; Zayer, Adam; Granatino, Nicolas; Cockman, Matthew E.; Loenarz, Christoph (1 December 2012).
"Oxygenase-catalyzed ribosome hydroxylation occurs in prokaryotes and humans" . Nature Chemical Biology . 8 (12): 960–962.
doi :
10.1038/nchembio.1093 .
ISSN
1552-4450 .
PMC
4972389 .
PMID
23103944 .
^ Tian, Ya-Min; Yeoh, Kar Kheng; Lee, Myung Kyu; Eriksson, Tuula; Kessler, Benedikt M.; Kramer, Holger B.; Edelmann, Mariola J.; Willam, Carsten; Pugh, Christopher W. (15 April 2011).
"Differential Sensitivity of Hypoxia Inducible Factor Hydroxylation Sites to Hypoxia and Hydroxylase Inhibitors" . Journal of Biological Chemistry . 286 (15): 13041–13051.
doi :
10.1074/jbc.M110.211110 .
ISSN
0021-9258 .
PMC
3075650 .
PMID
21335549 .
^ Loenarz, Christoph; Schofield, Christopher J. (1 March 2008). "Expanding chemical biology of 2-oxoglutarate oxygenases". Nature Chemical Biology . 4 (3): 152–156.
doi :
10.1038/nchembio0308-152 .
ISSN
1552-4450 .
PMID
18277970 .
^ McDonough, Michael A.; Li, Vivian; Flashman, Emily; Chowdhury, Rasheduzzaman; Mohr, Christopher; Liénard, Benoît M. R.; Zondlo, James; Oldham, Neil J.; Clifton, Ian J. (27 June 2006).
"Cellular oxygen sensing: Crystal structure of hypoxia-inducible factor prolyl hydroxylase (PHD2)" . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 103 (26): 9814–9819.
Bibcode :
2006PNAS..103.9814M .
doi :
10.1073/pnas.0601283103 .
ISSN
0027-8424 .
PMC
1502536 .
PMID
16782814 .
^ Yang, Ming; Chowdhury, Rasheduzzaman; Ge, Wei; Hamed, Refaat B.; McDonough, Michael A.; Claridge, Timothy D. W.; Kessler, Benedikt M.; Cockman, Matthew E.; Ratcliffe, Peter J. (1 April 2011).
"Factor-inhibiting hypoxia-inducible factor (FIH) catalyses the post-translational hydroxylation of histidinyl residues within ankyrin repeat domains" . FEBS Journal . 278 (7): 1086–1097.
doi :
10.1111/j.1742-4658.2011.08022.x .
ISSN
1742-4658 .
PMC
3569879 .
PMID
21251231 .
^ Langley, Gareth W.; Brinkø, Anne; Münzel, Martin; Walport, Louise J.; Schofield, Christopher J.; Hopkinson, Richard J. (25 November 2015).
"Analysis of JmjC Demethylase-Catalyzed Demethylation Using Geometrically-Constrained Lysine Analogues" . ACS Chemical Biology . 11 (3): 755–762.
doi :
10.1021/acschembio.5b00738 .
PMID
26555343 .
S2CID
19124771 .
^ Walport, Louise J.; Hopkinson, Richard J.; Chowdhury, Rasheduzzaman; Schiller, Rachel; Ge, Wei; Kawamura, Akane; Schofield, Christopher J. (23 June 2016).
"Arginine demethylation is catalysed by a subset of JmjC histone lysine demethylases" . Nature Communications . 7 : 11974.
Bibcode :
2016NatCo...711974W .
doi :
10.1038/ncomms11974 .
PMC
4931022 .
PMID
27337104 .
^ Ng, Stanley S.; Kavanagh, Kathryn L.; McDonough, Michael A.; Butler, Danica; Pilka, Ewa S.; Lienard, Benoit M. R.; Bray, James E.; Savitsky, Pavel; Gileadi, Opher (5 July 2007). "Crystal structures of histone demethylase JMJD2A reveal basis for substrate specificity". Nature . 448 (7149): 87–91.
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2007Natur.448...87N .
doi :
10.1038/nature05971 .
ISSN
0028-0836 .
PMID
17589501 .
S2CID
4331492 .
^ Kawamura, Akane; Loenarz, Christoph; Schofield, Christopher J. (1 September 2011).
"Mutations to metabolic enzymes in cancer herald a need to unify genetics and biochemistry" . Cell Cycle . 10 (17): 2819–2820.
doi :
10.4161/cc.10.17.16745 .
ISSN
1538-4101 .
PMID
21857150 .
^ Rotili, Dante; Tomassi, Stefano; Conte, Mariarosaria; Benedetti, Rosaria; Tortorici, Marcello; Ciossani, Giuseppe; Valente, Sergio; Marrocco, Biagina; Labella, Donatella (19 December 2013). "Pan-Histone Demethylase Inhibitors Simultaneously Targeting Jumonji C and Lysine-Specific Demethylases Display High Anticancer Activities". Journal of Medicinal Chemistry . 57 (1): 42–55.
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10.1021/jm4012802 .
hdl :
11573/542432 .
PMID
24325601 .
^ Kruidenier, Laurens; Chung, Chun-wa; Cheng, Zhongjun; Liddle, John; Che, KaHing; Joberty, Gerard; Bantscheff, Marcus; Bountra, Chas; Bridges, Angela (16 August 2012).
"A selective jumonji H3K27 demethylase inhibitor modulates the proinflammatory macrophage response" . Nature . 488 (7411): 404–408.
Bibcode :
2012Natur.488..404K .
doi :
10.1038/nature11262 .
ISSN
0028-0836 .
PMC
4691848 .
PMID
22842901 .
^ Lercher, Lukas; McDonough, Michael A.; El-Sagheer, Afaf H.; Thalhammer, Armin; Kriaucionis, Skirmantas; Brown, Tom; Schofield, Christopher J. (23 January 2014).
"Structural insights into how 5-hydroxymethylation influences transcription factor binding" . Chemical Communications . 50 (15): 1794–1796.
doi :
10.1039/C3CC48151D .
ISSN
1364-548X .
PMID
24287551 .
S2CID
6489226 .
^ Church, Chris; Lee, Sheena; Bagg, Eleanor A. L.; McTaggart, James S.; Deacon, Robert; Gerken, Thomas; Lee, Angela; Moir, Lee; Mecinović, Jasmin (14 August 2009).
"A Mouse Model for the Metabolic Effects of the Human Fat Mass and Obesity Associated FTO Gene" . PLOS Genet . 5 (8): e1000599.
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10.1371/journal.pgen.1000599 .
ISSN
1553-7404 .
PMC
2719869 .
PMID
19680540 .
^ Aik, WeiShen; Demetriades, Marina; Hamdan, Muhammad K. K.; Bagg, Eleanor. A. L.; Yeoh, Kar Kheng; Lejeune, Clarisse; Zhang, Zhihong; McDonough, Michael A.; Schofield, Christopher J. (23 April 2013). "Structural Basis for Inhibition of the Fat Mass and Obesity Associated Protein (FTO)". Journal of Medicinal Chemistry . 56 (9): 3680–3688.
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10.1021/jm400193d .
PMID
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2719869 .
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19680540 .
^ Mantri, Monica; Krojer, Tobias; Bagg, Eleanor A.; Webby, Celia J.; Butler, Danica S.; Kochan, Grazyna; Kavanagh, Kathryn L.; Oppermann, Udo; McDonough, Michael A. (13 August 2010). "Crystal Structure of the 2-Oxoglutarate- and Fe(II)-Dependent Lysyl Hydroxylase JMJD6". Journal of Molecular Biology . 401 (2): 211–222.
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PMID
20685276 .
^ Clifton, Ian J.; McDonough, Michael A.; Ehrismann, Dominic; Kershaw, Nadia J.; Granatino, Nicolas; Schofield, Christopher J. (1 April 2006). "Structural studies on 2-oxoglutarate oxygenases and related double-stranded β-helix fold proteins". Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry . High-valent iron intermediates in biologyHigh-valent iron intermediates in biology. 100 (4): 644–669.
doi :
10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2006.01.024 .
PMID
16513174 .
^ Welford, Richard W.D.; Kirkpatrick, Joanna M.; McNeill, Luke A.; Puri, Munish; Oldham, Neil J.; Schofield, Christopher J. (5 December 2005).
"Corrigendum to "Incorporation of oxygen into the succinate co-product of iron(II) and 2-oxoglutarate dependent oxygenases from bacteria, plants and humans (FEBS 29930)" [FEBS Lett. 579 (2005) 5170–5174]" . FEBS Letters . 579 (29): 6688.
doi :
10.1016/j.febslet.2005.11.001 .
hdl :
10536/DRO/DU:30095401 .
ISSN
1873-3468 .
^ Loenarz, Christoph; Mecinović, Jasmin; Chowdhury, Rasheduzzaman; McNeill, LukeA.; Flashman, Emily; Schofield, ChristopherJ. (23 February 2009). "Evidence for a Stereoelectronic Effect in Human Oxygen Sensing". Angewandte Chemie International Edition . 48 (10): 1784–1787.
doi :
10.1002/anie.200805427 .
ISSN
1521-3773 .
PMID
19180614 .
^ Astuti, Dewi; Ricketts, Christopher J.; Chowdhury, Rasheduzzaman; McDonough, Michael A.; Gentle, Dean; Kirby, Gail; Schlisio, Susanne; Kenchappa, Rajappa S.; Carter, Bruce D. (1 February 2011).
"Mutation analysis of HIF prolyl hydroxylases (PHD/EGLN) in individuals with features of phaeochromocytoma and renal cell carcinoma susceptibility" . Endocrine-Related Cancer . 18 (1): 73–83.
doi :
10.1677/ERC-10-0113 .
ISSN
1351-0088 .
PMC
3006001 .
PMID
20959442 .
^ Rose, Nathan R.; McDonough, Michael A.; King, Oliver N. F.; Kawamura, Akane; Schofield, Christopher J. (14 July 2011). "Inhibition of 2-oxoglutarate dependent oxygenases". Chemical Society Reviews . 40 (8): 4364–97.
doi :
10.1039/C0CS00203H .
ISSN
1460-4744 .
PMID
21390379 .
^ Aik, WeiShen; Scotti, John S.; Choi, Hwanho; Gong, Lingzhi; Demetriades, Marina; Schofield, Christopher J.; McDonough, Michael A. (1 April 2014).
"Structure of human RNA N6-methyladenine demethylase ALKBH5 provides insights into its mechanisms of nucleic acid recognition and demethylation" . Nucleic Acids Research . 42 (7): 4741–4754.
doi :
10.1093/nar/gku085 .
ISSN
0305-1048 .
PMC
3985658 .
PMID
24489119 .
^ Mackeen, Mukram M.; Kramer, Holger B.; Chang, Kai-Hsuan; Coleman, Matthew L.; Hopkinson, Richard J.; Schofield, Christopher J.; Kessler, Benedikt M. (21 July 2010).
"Small-Molecule-Based Inhibition of Histone Demethylation in Cells Assessed by Quantitative Mass Spectrometry" . Journal of Proteome Research . 9 (8): 4082–4092.
doi :
10.1021/pr100269b .
PMC
4681095 .
PMID
20583823 .
^ Clifton, Ian J.; Hsueh, Li-Ching; Baldwin, Jack E.; Harlos, Karl; Schofield, Christopher J. (15 December 2001).
"Structure of proline 3-hydroxylase" . European Journal of Biochemistry . 268 (24): 6625–6636.
doi :
10.1046/j.0014-2956.2001.02617.x .
ISSN
1432-1033 .
PMID
11737217 .
^ Mbenza NM, Vadakkedath PG, McGillivray DJ, Leung IK (December 2017). "NMR studies of the non-haem Fe(II) and 2-oxoglutarate-dependent oxygenases". J. Inorg. Biochem . 177 : 384–394.
doi :
10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2017.08.032 .
PMID
28893416 .
^ Khan A, Leśniak RK, Brem J, Rydzik AM, Choi H, Leung IK, McDonough MA, Schofield CJ, Claridge TD (February 2016).
"Development and application of ligand-based NMR screening assays for γ-butyrobetaine hydroxylase" . Med. Chem. Commun . 7 (5): 873–880.
doi :
10.1039/C6MD00004E .
hdl :
2292/30083 .
^ Leung IK, Demetriades M, Hardy AP, Lejeune C, Smart TJ, Szöllössi A, Kawamura A, Schofield CJ, Claridge TD (January 2013).
"Reporter ligand NMR screening method for 2-oxoglutarate oxygenase inhibitors" . J. Med. Chem . 56 (2): 547–555.
doi :
10.1021/jm301583m .
PMC
4673903 .
PMID
23234607 .
^ Leung IK, Flashman E, Yeoh KK, Schofield CJ, Claridge TD (January 2010). "Using NMR solvent water relaxation to investigate metalloenzyme-ligand binding interactions". J. Med. Chem . 53 (2): 867–875.
doi :
10.1021/jm901537q .
PMID
20025281 .
^ Rydzik AM, Leung IK, Thalhammer A, Kochan GT, Claridge TD, Schofield CJ (February 2014).
"Fluoromethylated derivatives of carnitine biosynthesis intermediates - synthesis and applications" . Chem. Commun . 50 (10): 1175–1177.
doi :
10.1039/c3cc47581f .
PMID
24317009 .
^ Mecinović, Jasmin; Chowdhury, Rasheduzzaman; Flashman, Emily; Schofield, Christopher J. (15 October 2009). "Use of mass spectrometry to probe the nucleophilicity of cysteinyl residues of prolyl hydroxylase domain 2". Analytical Biochemistry . 393 (2): 215–221.
doi :
10.1016/j.ab.2009.06.029 .
PMID
19563769 .
^ Tan, SuatCheng; Carr, CarolynA.; Yeoh, KarKheng; Schofield, ChristopherJ.; Davies, KayE.; Clarke, Kieran (1 April 2012).
"Identification of valid housekeeping genes for quantitative RT-PCR analysis of cardiosphere-derived cells preconditioned under hypoxia or with prolyl-4-hydroxylase inhibitors" . Molecular Biology Reports . 39 (4): 4857–4867.
doi :
10.1007/s11033-011-1281-5 .
ISSN
0301-4851 .
PMC
3294216 .
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External links
International National Academics