This is a list of
countries with
territory that straddles more than one
continent, known as transcontinental states or intercontinental states.[1]
Contiguous transcontinental countries are states that have one continuous or immediately-adjacent piece of territory that spans a
continental boundary, most commonly the line that separates Asia and Europe. By contrast, non-contiguous transcontinental countries are those states that have portions of territory that are separated from one another either by a body of water or by other countries (such as in the case of France). Most non-contiguous transcontinental countries are countries with
dependent territories like Denmark with
Greenland, but can be countries that have fully integrated former dependent territories in their central states like France with its
overseas regions.[1]
For the purposes of this article, a
seven-continent model is assumed based on common terms of reference by English language geographers.[2] Combined continents like "the Americas" and "Eurasia" are not acknowledged or referenced. The
boundary between Asia and Europe is largely conventional (much of it over land), and several conventions remained in use well into the 20th century. However, the now-prevalent convention—which has been in use by some
cartographers since about 1850—follows the
Caucasus northern chain, the
Ural River and the
Ural Mountains, is used for the purposes of this list.[3] This convention results in several countries such as in the case of
Azerbaijan,
Kazakhstan, and Turkey finding themselves almost entirely in 'Asia', with a few small
enclaves or districts technically in 'Europe'. Notwithstanding these anomalies, this list of transcontinental or intercontinental states respects the convention that Europe and Asia are full continents rather than
subcontinents or component
landmasses of a larger
Eurasian continent.
Listed further below, separately, are countries with distant non-contiguous parts (overseas territories) on separate continents.
Definition
The lists within this article include entries that meet the following criteria:
Transcontinental or intercontinental states are
sovereign states that have some portion of their
territory geographically divided between at least two
continents.[1][4]
Transcontinental states can be classed as either contiguous or non-contiguous transcontinental states.[5]
Contiguous transcontinental states are those countries that have one continuous or immediately adjacent piece of territory that spans a
continental boundary. More specifically, they contain a portion of their territory on one continent and a portion of their territory on another continent, while having these two portions connected via a natural geological land connection (e.g. Russia) or the two portions being immediately adjacent to one another (e.g. Turkey).[6][7]
Non-contiguous transcontinental states are those that have portions of territory that are separated from one another either by a significant
body of water or by other land.[6][7] Most non-contiguous transcontinental countries are countries with
overseas territories.[1]
The
boundaries between the continents can be vague and subject to interpretation, making it difficult to conclusively define what counts as a 'transcontinental state'.
Therefore, states that have territory across sub-continental boundaries, as well as
plate boundaries that are only internal to continents, are excluded from this article.
Some non-contiguous transcontinental states have territory situated on distant islands that may or may not be considered a part of another nearby continent (e.g.
Yemen's
Socotra and Portugal's
Madeira). Though there is debate[citation needed] as to whether these states ought to be considered 'transcontinental', they are still included in this article.
While it is debatable as to whether states that have claimed territory within the
Antarctic Treaty System can have actual control of that claimed territory (e.g.,
Chilean Antarctic Territory), they are included in this article.
Some
autonomous regions (or
dependent territories) may be constitutionally distinguishable from the parent state that claims them as their territory (e.g., in the case of
British Overseas Territories and the United Kingdom), thereby causing debate as to whether such states ought to be considered 'transcontinental'.[citation needed] They are nevertheless included in this article.
Contiguous transcontinental states are those countries that have one continuous or immediately adjacent piece of territory that spans a
continental boundary. More specifically, they contain a portion of their territory on one continent and a portion of their territory on another continent, while having these two portions connected via a natural geological land connection (e.g. Russia) or the two portions being immediately adjacent to one another (e.g. Turkey).[6][7] In other words, someone can travel to another continent without changing the country (without crossing a border).
Georgia is located mainly on the
Asian portion of the
Caucasus; however, the Municipality of
Kazbegi, north
Khevsureti and
Tusheti are located north of the Greater Caucasus Watershed, which is geographically in Europe, with mountain peaks throughout the Caucasus ridge, placing around 5% of the country's total territory in Europe. Despite its geography, Georgia is considered a European country geopolitically[10] because of its historical, cultural, ethnic, and political ties to the continent.[11][12][13][14]
Kazakhstan is a country mainly located in
Central Asia,[15] with a small portion of the country extending west of the
Ural River in
Eastern Europe. The country's physical, cultural, ethnic, and geographic characteristics are Central Asian,[16][17] with a large
European influence and influx of European settlers from Russia from when it was a part of the Soviet Union and the earlier
Russian Empire. Its
West Kazakhstan and
Atyrau regions extend on either side of the Ural River,[18] placing a population of less than one million residents (out of a 15 million total population) geographically in Europe. Because the city of
Atyrau straddles the Ural River, it can be considered a transcontinental city.[19]
Turkey falls almost wholly within
Western Asia (the Asian portion of Turkey consisting of the Anatolian Peninsula and additional land) plus a smaller portion of the country in the
Balkan Peninsula in
Southeastern Europe called
East Thrace, which covers only 3% of the country's total area, with a population of about 11 million people, or some 14% of the country's population. Turkey's largest city
Istanbul spans both sides of the
Bosphorus, making it a transcontinental city in both Europe and Asia,[21] while the country's capital
Ankara is located in Asia. The territory of the current Turkish state is the core territory of the previous
Ottoman Empire that was also transcontinental in the same geographic region, which itself had also supplanted the earlier, similarly transcontinental
Byzantine Empire.
The conventional boundary between North America and South America is at some point on the
Colombia–Panama border, with the most common demarcation in atlases and other sources following the
Darién Mountains watershed where the
Isthmus of Panama meets the South American continent (see
Darién Gap). This area encompasses a large watershed, forest and mountains in the northern portion of
Colombia's Chocó Department and
Panama's Darién province.
The special case of Caribbean islands adjacent to the South American coastline:
Trinidad and Tobago: The state of Trinidad and Tobago lies on two
tectonic plates. The southern half of
Trinidad lies on the
South American Plate while the northern half of Trinidad and the island of
Tobago lie on the
Caribbean Plate. However, these geological features do not necessarily qualify Trinidad and Tobago as a transcontinental state, as the whole territory is often labeled
geopolitically as part of North America.
Leeward Antilles (Collectively
Aruba,
Bonaire, and
Curaçao of the Netherlands;
Nueva Esparta of
Venezuela; and the
Federal Dependencies of Venezuela, excluding
Aves Island): The Caribbean islands division of North America and South America is complicated.
Geopolitically, all Caribbean islands in the
West Indies are often labeled as North American islands, but
geologically, the islands of the Leeward Antilles lie on the
continental shelf of South America, and can be considered South American as well. Excluding the geographically North American Aves Island, the remaining Venezuelan islands of the Federal Dependencies are islands situated in the Caribbean on the continental shelf of South America. These islands are north of the Venezuelan mainland and are akin to the location of Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, and Trinidad and Tobago. Similarly, the islands of the
State of Nueva Esparta (
Margarita Island,
Coche Island, and
Cubagua) are also situated in the Caribbean Sea just to the north of the Caribbean coastline of the Venezuelan mainland. However, all of the non-Venezuelan islands in this area are typically considered North American rather than South American.[26]
Caribbean Island locations
North American Caribbean islands administered by South American states:
Kingdom of Denmark: As a constituent part of the
Danish Realm,
Greenland is a
non-sovereign country within the
Kingdom of Denmark. Fully located on the North American tectonic plate, and close to the mainland, Greenland is considered to be geographically a part of North America,[29] with the United Nations categorizing them as such.[30] Although it is politically associated with Europe and internationally represented by a European state (including in the Council of Europe), it is autonomous. Historically and ethnically, its native population is of North American tradition, although it also shares cultural links with other native peoples bordering the
Arctic Sea in Northern Europe and Asia (today in Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia), as well as in North America (Alaska in the U.S.,
Northwest Territories,
Nunavut and northern parts of
Quebec and
Labrador in Canada). Greenland was part of Danish territory and within the territory of the European Union, but voted for more autonomy and is now excluded from the EU.[31]
Europe, North America, and South America
Netherlands: Though most of the
Kingdom of the Netherlands' landmass is in Europe, it also includes six island territories in the
Lesser Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean: the
Dutch Caribbean. Within the Lesser Antilles archipelago, three territories are in the
Leeward Islands group (considered part of the continent of North America) and three in the
Leeward Antilles group (on the South American continental shelf). Since the
dissolution of the
Dutch Antilles in 2010, the
sovereignKingdom of the Netherlands has been administratively divided into four non-sovereign constituent "countries":
Aruba,
Curaçao,
Sint Maarten and the Netherlands — the last of which includes the islands of Bonaire, Saint Eustatius and Saba (collectively known as the BES islands or the
Caribbean Netherlands) as "special municipalities", making it a non-sovereign transcontinental constituent country within the Kingdom.
Italy: Italy has a number of small islands south of Sicily that can be considered part of the African continent, due to their proximity to Tunisia. The closest land to
Pantelleria and the
Pelagie Islands (
Lampedusa,
Linosa and
Lampione) is
Tunisia on the African mainland. Nevertheless, Pantelleria and Linosa are considered part of Europe, Lampedusa and Lampione part of Africa.[42]
Spain: Although its mainland is in Europe, Spain has territory, including two provinces and two autonomous cities, in Africa. Close to 5% of Spain's population live on the African continent. Spanish territory in Africa includes the
Canary Islands in the Atlantic,[44][45] the cities of
Ceuta and
Melilla on mainland North Africa, and Spain's plazas de soberanía, which are close to those cities that are geographically part of Africa. The Canary Islands, Ceuta and Melilla are three of the 19
autonomous communities and cities that form Spain, while the plazas de soberanía are under a different status, akin to
unincorporated territories. The African Mediterranean island of
Alboran belongs to the transcontinental city of
Almería and the transcontinental
province of Almería.
Australia: The Commonwealth of Australia consists of its namesake continent and island possessions associated with Oceania, Asia, and
Antarctica. Its
Indian Ocean territories of
Christmas Island and the
Cocos (Keeling) Islands are sometimes
culturally associated with
Southeast Asia. The majority of residents on these islands have Asian ancestry (mainly
Chinese and
Malays); there is also a proportion of
Australians and
New Zealanders on the islands who have European ancestry.[48][49] The islands have no proper
indigenous population, as they were only discovered in the 17th century, by Europeans. Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands are classified as being the westernmost areas of Oceania by the
World Factbook, and are also considered part of Oceania by the United Nations. They are within the
Australian Plate, and could potentially be geographically part of Oceania under definitions that include the nearby
Malay Archipelago, or under definitions which are based on tectonic plates.
Indonesia and Timor-Leste: Indonesia (excluding Western New Guinea) and Timor-Leste are occasionally associated with Oceania, as they are the closest to Australia and
Melanesia out of all countries in the Malay Archipelago.[37] Indonesia currently controls
Western New Guinea, which is culturally associated with Oceania, and geologically a part of the
Australian landmass.[56][57][58] Moreover, Indonesian territories include the province of
East Nusa Tenggara (which Timor-Leste shares a border with) and the
Moluccan archipelago, both of which lie within
Wallacea and have been considered as geographical and cultural intersections of Asia and Oceania.
Argentina, Australia,
Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway,
South Africa, and the United Kingdom: These eight states have
overseas island possessions in the
Subantarctic region between 46°S and 60°S latitude. Subantarctic islands that are north of 60°S latitude but south of the
Antarctic Convergence and that are recognized by
international law as being full sovereign possessions of an administering state are:
Bouvet Island (Norway),
Heard Island and McDonald Islands (Australia), the
Kerguelen Islands (France), and
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (United Kingdom). The United Nations categorize Bouvet Island and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands as part of South America, and Heard Island and McDonald Islands as part of Oceania.[30] South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands is sometimes considered to be geographically within the bounds of South America;[59][60] however, the other islands are among the most isolated locations in the world. Human activity is very limited on Bouvet Island and Heard Island and McDonald Islands; for example, the
McDonald Islands have only ever been visited twice throughout their entire recorded history, with the last visit being in 1980.[61] The World Factbook categorize Bouvet Island and Heard Island and McDonald Islands as part of Antarctica rather than South America/Oceania.[62][63]
Antarctic region
Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom: These seven states claim portions of the
Antarctic mainland (some of them overlapping),[b] as well as its associated islands south of 60°S latitude. Some, including
Argentina and
Chile, consider the Antarctic land they claim to be integral parts of their national territory. However, none of these claims are recognized by the
United Nations and the
international community.[c] Since 1961, the
Antarctic Treaty System has held in
abeyance all land claims south of 60°S latitude, including Antarctica's ice shelves and Antarctic islands.
Countries formerly and/or never widely or officially considered as transcontinental countries
Asia and Oceania
Brunei, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, and Philippines: The
Malay Archipelago, comprising the bulk of
Maritime Southeast Asia (excluding the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands and
Singapore) and the island of
New Guinea, located between
Mainland Australia and
Mainland Southeast Asia, can be considered a transcontinental region. Many initial 19th century definitions of Oceania included most or all of the Malay Archipelago.[65][28][66][67] Definitions of Oceania which include the Malay Archipelago are much rarer today; the non-oceanic nature of the Malay Archipelago and its geological connections to Asia may not have been as widely known in the 19th century.[37] The Philippines are the closest to the Oceania subregion of Micronesia, and are sometimes historically associated with it, mainly due to their shared Christian cultures and Spanish colonial histories, and their shared
Austronesian backgrounds.[24] Anthropologically,
New Guinea is a part of Melanesia, but it is sometimes included in the Malay Archipelago. The state of Papua New Guinea is an observer in the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), which includes the
mainland states of Southeast Asia, and has contemplated full membership in this organisation.[68] Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Singapore (as well as Japan) are all dialogue partners of the
Pacific Islands Forum (PIF), and Timor-Leste are an observer. However, only countries solely associated with Oceania have full membership, such as Australia,
Federated States of Micronesia,
Fiji, New Zealand and
Samoa.[69][70]
North America and Oceania
Costa Rica and Mexico:
Oceania at times is considered to encompass all
oceanic islands in the Pacific Ocean.[25][50] Oceanic islands are defined as islands that were never connected to a continental landmass, and which formed through volcanic activity in the ocean.[25] Mexico administer the oceanic
Guadalupe Island and
Revillagigedo Islands, and the oceanic islet of
Rocas Alijos, while Costa Rica administer the oceanic
Cocos Island. All of these islands were uninhabited prior to European discovery,[71] and none lie on the North American or South American tectonic plates; the Mexican islands lie on the Pacific Plate with most of Oceania, and Cocos Island lies on the self-named
Cocos Plate, which contains no other islands besides Colombia's Malpelo Island. Furthermore, the Mexican state of
Baja California, despite being physiologically connected to the American landmass, is in fact part of the Pacific Plate. Guadalupe Island and Rocas Alijos are rarely categorized with other Pacific Islands, as they are only 250 to 300 kilometers removed from Baja California. Revillagigedo's most remote island,
Clarion, is 700 kilometers from Mexico's coast, and Cocos Island is 550 kilometers from Costa Rica's coast. These islands are more frequently associated with the term Pacific Islands,[72] and occasionally have been included as part of Oceania.[73][24][71] Remoter islands such as France's
Clipperton (1,100 kilometers from Mexico's coast) are even more commonly associated with Oceania, with such islands usually having stronger biogeographical affinities to the central Pacific or south Pacific.[74]
South America and Oceania
Ecuador: The Pacific Ocean archipelago of the
Galápagos Islands, about 1,000 kilometers from continental Ecuador, is sometimes considered part of Oceania.[56][50][75][76][73] This is because of the distance separating them from mainland South America, and their oceanic geology.[25][28] The islands lie on the
Nazca Plate with Easter Island, which is considered to be separate to the South American Plate, and they additionally border the Pacific Plate.[77] The Galápagos Islands did not have any known human ties to South America during the
pre-Columbian era;[78][79] however, they also do not fit into a cultural subregion of Oceania and the Pacific, as is the case with Easter Island, which historically was Polynesian.[80][79]
Europe and North America
Iceland: Among the most frequently cited features of
Iceland's geography is its position atop the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which runs beneath the island. This ridge divides Iceland between the two continental plates, although the country identifies with Europe for political and economic reasons.[81]
^The question was treated as a "controversy" in British geographical literature until at least the 1860s, with
Douglas Freshfield advocating the Caucasus crest boundary as the "best possible", citing support from various "modern geographers" (
Journey in the CaucasusArchived 2023-07-03 at the
Wayback Machine, Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, Volumes 13–14, 1869). In 1958, the Soviet Geographical Society formally recommended that the boundary between Europe and Asia be drawn in textbooks from
Baydaratskaya Bay, on the
Kara Sea, along the eastern foot of the Ural Mountains, then the Ural River to the
Mugodzhar Hills, the
Emba River, and the Kuma–Manych Depression (i.e. passing well north of the Caucasus);
"Do we live in Europe or in Asia?" (in Russian).
Archived from the original on 2018-02-18. Retrieved 2015-11-26.; Orlenok V. (1998).
"Physical Geography" (in Russian). Archived from
the original on 2011-10-16.. Nevertheless, most Soviet-era geographers continued to favour the boundary along the Caucasus crest. (E. M. Moores, R. W. Fairbridge, Encyclopedia of European and Asian regional geology, Springer, 1997,
ISBN978-0-412-74040-4, p. 34: "most Soviet geographers took the watershed of the Main Range of the Greater Caucasus as the boundary between Europe and Asia.")
^National Geographic Atlas of the World (9th ed.). Washington, D.C.:
National Geographic. 2011. "Europe" (plate 59); "Asia" (plate 74).
ISBN978-1-4262-0634-4. A commonly accepted division between Asia and Europe ... is formed by the Ural Mountains, Ural River, Caspian Sea, Caucasus Mountains, and the Black Sea with its outlets, the Bosporus and Dardanelles.
^
abcSebeok, Thomas Albert (1971).
Current Trends in Linguistics: Linguistics in Oceania. the University of Michigan. p. 950.
Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 2 February 2022. Most of this account of the influence of the Hispanic languages in Oceania has dealt with the Western Pacific, but the Eastern Pacific has not been without some share of the presence of the Portuguese and Spanish. The Eastern Pacific does not have the multitude of islands so characteristic of the Western regions of this great ocean, but there are some: Easter Island, 2000 miles off the Chilean coast, where a Polynesian tongue, Rapanui, is still spoken; the Juan Fernandez group, 400 miles west of Valparaíso; the Galápagos archipelago, 650 miles west of Ecuador; Malpelo and Cocos, 300 miles off the Colombian and Costa Rican coasts respectively; and others. Not many of these islands have extensive populations — some have been used effectively as prisons — but the official language on each is Spanish.
^
abcdeR. Zug, George (2013). Reptiles and Amphibians of the Pacific Islands: A Comprehensive Guide. University of California Press.
^S. Ridgely, Robert; Guy, Tudor (1989).
The Birds of South America: Volume 1: The Oscine Passerines. University of Texas Press. p. 14.
ISBN9780292707566.
Archived from the original on 3 July 2023. Retrieved 12 March 2022. Finally, a few comments on the area we consider to be part of "South America" are in order. Essentially we have followed the limits established by Meyer de Schauensee (1970: xii) with a few minor modifications. Thus, all the continental inshore islands are included (e.g., Trinidad and Tobago; various small islands off the northern coast of Venezuela, the Netherlands Antilles [Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao]; and Fernando de Noronha, off the northeastern coast of Brazil), but islands more properly considered part of the West Indies (e.g. Grenada) are not. To the south, we have opted to include the Falkland Islands (or Islas Malvinas — in referring to them as the Falklands we are not making any political statement but merely recognizing that this book is being written in the English language), as their avifauna is really very similar to that of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. However, various other islands farther out in the South Atlantic (e.g., South Georgia) are not included except incidentally (e.g., endemic South Georgia Pipit have been incorporated). Likewise, the Juan Fernández Islands far off the Chilean coast have not been included (except for incidental comments), nor have the Galápagos Islands, situated even further off the Ecuadorian coast.
^
abcBrown, Robert (1876).
"Oceania: General Characteristics". The countries of the world. Oxford University.
Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 1 February 2022.
^Wallace, Alfred Russel (1879).
Australasia. The University of Michigan. p. 2.
Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 12 March 2022. Oceania is the word often used by continental geographers to describe the great world of islands we are now entering upon [...] This boundless watery domain, which extends northwards of Behring Straits and southward to the Antarctic barrier of ice, is studded with many island groups, which are, however, very irregularly distributed over its surface. The more northerly section, lying between Japan and California and between the Aleutian and Hawaiian Archipelagos is relived by nothing but a few solitary reefs and rocks at enormously distant intervals.
^Kohlhoff, Dean (2002).
Amchitka and the Bomb: Nuclear Testing in Alaska. University of Washington Press. p. 6.
ISBN9780295800509.
Archived from the original on 17 May 2023. Retrieved 12 March 2022. The regional name of the Pacific Islands is appropriate: Oceania, a sea of islands, including those of Alaska and Hawaii. The Pacific Basin is not insignificant or remote. It covers one third of the globe's surface. Its northern boundary is the Aleutian Islands chain. Oceania virtually touches all of the Western Hemisphere.
^
abcHenderson, John William (1971).
Area Handbook for Oceania. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 5.
Archived from the original on 6 April 2023. Retrieved 11 March 2022.
^Mears, Eliot Grinnell (1945).
Pacific Ocean Handbook. J. L. Delkin. p. 45.
Archived from the original on 3 July 2023. Retrieved 19 April 2022.
^Hutt, Graham (2010).
North Africa. Imray, Laurie, Norie and Wilson Limited. p. 265.
ISBN9781846238833.
Archived from the original on 2023-05-17. Retrieved 2023-03-19.
^Abram, Simone; Macleod, Don; Waldren, Jackie (2021).
Tourists and Tourism: Identifying with People and Places. Taylor & Francis.
ISBN9781000324143.
Archived from the original on 3 July 2023. Retrieved 12 March 2022. The Canary Islands are politically part of Spain, but geographically part of Africa, being islands of volcanic origin situated around one hundred miles off the coast of North-West Africa.
^Birmingham, David (1995).
The Decolonization Of Africa. Taylor & Francis. p. 16.
ISBN9781135363673.
Archived from the original on 3 July 2023. Retrieved 12 March 2022. The offshore Canary Islands, although historically and geographically part of Africa, remained culturally, economically and politically part of Spain.
^Egan, Colleen (11 December 1999).
"Bad tidings on Christmas". The Weekend Australian.
Archived from the original on 8 June 2021. Retrieved 7 March 2022.
^
abcTodd, Ian (1974).
Island Realm: A Pacific Panorama. Angus & Robertson. p. 190.
ISBN9780207127618.
Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 2 February 2022. [we] can further define the word culture to mean language. Thus we have the French language part of Oceania, the Spanish part and the Japanese part. The Japanese culture groups of Oceania are the Bonin Islands, the Marcus Islands and the Volcano Islands. These three clusters, lying south and south-east of Japan, are inhabited either by Japanese or by people who have now completely fused with the Japanese race. Therefore they will not be taken into account in the proposed comparison of the policies of non – Oceanic cultures towards Oceanic peoples. On the eastern side of the Pacific are a number of Spanish language culture groups of islands. Two of them, the Galápagos and Easter Island, have been dealt with as separate chapters in this volume. Only one of the dozen or so Spanish culture island groups of Oceania has an Oceanic population — the Polynesians of Easter Island. The rest are either uninhabited or have a Spanish – Latin – American population consisting of people who migrated from the mainland. Therefore, the comparisons which follow refer almost exclusively to the English and French language cultures.
^Thomson, Lex; Doran, John; Clarke, Bronwyn (2018).
Trees for life in Oceania: Conservation and utilisation of genetic diversity(PDF). Canberra, Australia: Australian Center for International Agricultural Research. p. 16.
Archived(PDF) from the original on 24 January 2022. Retrieved 24 January 2022. In a number of cases, human exploitation of certain high-value tree species, including sandalwoods and other highly prized timbers, has led to their extinction—such as the sandalwood species Santalum fernandezianum, in Juan Fernández Islands; and others to the brink of extinction, such S. boninensis in Ogasawara Islands, Japan; or is an ongoing threatening factor in the examples of S. yasi in Fiji and Tonga, Gyrinops spp. in Papua New Guinea (PNG) and Intsia bijuga throughout the Pacific Islands.
^"小笠原諸島の歴史". www.iwojima.jp.
Archived from the original on 2019-09-09. Retrieved 2022-03-07.
^Oceania in the 21st Century – Color. St. John's School, Guam, USA. 2010.
ISBN9780557445059.
Archived from the original on 17 May 2023. Retrieved 12 March 2022. The Bonin Islands, now known as the Ogasawara Islands, are a group of subtropical islands located roughly equidistant between the Tokyo, Japan and the Northern Mariana Islands. This group of islands is nowhere near Tokyo, but it is still considered to be a part of Tokyo! The Ogasawara Islands consist of 30 subtropical islands made The Bonin Islands were said to be discovered first by Bernardo de la Torre, a Spanish explorer, who originally called the islands "Islas del Arzobispo" [,,,]
^
ab"Oceania Bibliography"(PDF). Helictite: Journal of Australasian Cave Research. 25 (1). 1987.
Archived(PDF) from the original on 22 March 2022. Retrieved 16 March 2022. This paper covers the region from Irian Jaya (Western New Guinea, a province of New Guinea) in the west to Galápagos Islands (Equador) and Easter Island (Chile) in the east.
^Parley, Peter (1866).
Tales about Europe, Asia, Africa, America, & Oceania. Oxford University. p. 2.
Archived from the original on 3 July 2023. Retrieved 12 March 2022. Oceania consists of Australasia, Polynesia and Malaysia. Australasia means South Asia. It comprises New Holland or Australia, Van Diemen's Land or Tasmania, Papua or New Guinea, Norfolk Island, New Zealand and some smaller islands. Polynesia is the term given to the various islands in the Pacific Ocean, which, as you may see on the map, are situated to the eastward of Australia, including the Philippine Islands. Malaysia is the name given to the islands of the Malay Archipelago, which are principally inhabited by the Malay race, comprising Borneo, the Sunday Isles, Celebes, Moluccas [...]
^Chambers's New Handy Volume American Encyclopædia: Volume 9. The University of Virginia. 1885. p. 657.
Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 13 March 2022. the whole region has sometimes been called Oceania, and sometimes Australasia—generally, however, in modern times, to the exclusion of the islands in the Indian archipelago, to which certain writers have given the name of Malaysia [...] we have the three geographical divisions of Malaysia, Australasia and Polynesia, the last mentioned of which embraces all the groups and single islands not included under the other two. Accepting this arrangement, still the limits between Australasia and Polynesia have not been very accurately defined; indeed, scarcely any two geographers appear to be quite agreed upon the subject; neither shall we pretend to decide in the matter. The following list, however, comprises all the principal groups and single island not previously named as coming under the division of Australasia: 1. North of the equator—The Ladrone or Marian islands. the Pelew islands, the Caroline islands, the Radack and Ralick chains, the Sandwich islands, Gilbert's or Kingstnill's archipelago. and the Galápagos. 2. South of the equator—The Ellice group, the Phoenix and Union groups. the Fiji islands, the Friendly islands, the Navigator's islands. Cook's or Harvey islands, the Society islands. the Dangerous archipelago, the Marquesas islands, Pitcairn island, and Easter island.
^
abTodd, Ian (1974).
Island Realm: A Pacific Panorama. Angus & Robertson. p. 197.
ISBN9780207127618.
Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 2 February 2022. Mexico controls two small groups of Pacific Ocean islands — Islas Revilla Cigedo and Guadalupe — both less than 500 miles ... They have no indigenous population and are geographically part of Oceania
^
abTerry, James P. (1998).
Climate and Environmental Change in the Pacific. The University of Michigan. p. 5.
ISBN9789820103580.
Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 11 March 2022. The British added the Ellice, Pitcairn and portions of the Phoenix Islands; the Australians consolidated their claims to Papua; and the French consolidated their claims to Clipperton islands; Easter and adjacent islands were claimed by Chile, Cocos Island was claimed by Costa Rica, and the Galápagos claimed by Ecuador. By 1900 there were virtually no remaining islands in Oceania unclaimed by foreign powers.
^Review of the Protected Areas System in Oceania(PDF). International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. 1986.
Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 January 2022. Retrieved 17 January 2022. Easter Island on the east has been included on the basis of its Polynesian and biogeographic affinities even though it is politically apart. The other islands of the eastern Pacific (Galápagos, Juan Fernandez, etc.) have sometimes been included in Oceania.
^Hull, Frank M. (1937).
A Check List of the Syrphidae of Oceania(PDF). Department of Biology, University of Missouri.
Archived(PDF) from the original on 26 January 2022. Retrieved 17 January 2022. Oceania is primarily considered as the restricted region treated in this paper, but for comparative purposes, in the table only, it is also considered in a broad sense as including New Guinea, Australia, New Caledonia, New Zealand, the Antipodes, and Galápagos.
^Sues, Hans-Diete; MacPhee, Ross D.E (1999).
Extinctions in Near Time: Causes, Contexts, and Consequences. Springer US. p. 29.
ISBN9780306460920.
Archived from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 1 February 2022. The human colonization of remote Oceania occurred in the late Holocene. Prehistoric human explorers missed only the Galápagos and a very few out-of-the-way places as they surged east out of the Solomons, island-hopping thousands of kilometers through the Polynesian heartland to reach Hawaii to the far north, Easter Island over 7500km to the east and, New Zealand to the south
^Janick, Jules (2010).
Horticultural Reviews, Volume 36. Wiley. p. 146.
ISBN9780470527221.
Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 1 February 2022. Oceania is a broadly applied term for the thousands of islands in the Pacific Ocean. They range from extremely small, uninhabited islands, to large ones, including Australia, New Zealand and New Guinea. Oceania is further grouped into three regions, Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. There a few other Pacific island groups that do not fit into these groupings, such as Galápagos.