Volubilis (Latin pronunciation:[wɔˈɫuːbɪlɪs];
Arabic: وليلي,
romanized: walīlī;
Berber languages: ⵡⵍⵉⵍⵉ, romanized: wlili) is a partly-excavated Berber-Roman city in
Morocco situated near the city of
Meknes that may have been the capital of the
Kingdom of Mauretania, at least from the time of King
Juba II. Before Volubilis, the capital of the kingdom may have been at Gilda.
Built in a fertile agricultural area, it developed from the 3rd century BC onward as a Berber, then proto-
Carthaginian, settlement before being the capital of the kingdom of Mauretania. It grew rapidly under Roman rule from the 1st century AD onward and expanded to cover about 42 hectares (100 acres) with a 2.6 km (1.6 mi) circuit of walls. The city gained a number of major public buildings in the 2nd century, including a
basilica,
temple and
triumphal arch. Its prosperity, which was derived principally from
olive growing, prompted the construction of many fine town-houses with large
mosaic floors.
The city fell to local tribes around 285 and was never retaken by Rome because of its remoteness and indefensibility on the south-western border of the
Roman Empire. It continued to be inhabited for at least another 700 years, first as a Latinised Christian community, then as an early Islamic settlement. In the late 8th century it became the seat of
Idris ibn Abdallah, the founder of the
Idrisid dynasty of Morocco. By the 11th century Volubilis had been abandoned after the seat of power was relocated to
Fes. Much of the local population was transferred to the new town of
Moulay Idriss Zerhoun, about 5 km (3.1 mi) from Volubilis.
The ruins remained substantially intact until they were
devastated by an earthquake in the mid-18th century and subsequently looted by Moroccan rulers seeking stone for building Meknes. It was not until the latter part of the 19th century that the site was definitively identified as that of the ancient city of Volubilis. During and after the period of French rule over Morocco, about half of the site was excavated, revealing many fine mosaics, and some of the more prominent public buildings and high-status houses were restored or reconstructed. Today it is a
UNESCOWorld Heritage Site, listed for being "an exceptionally well preserved example of a large Roman colonial town on the fringes of the Empire". (Full article...)
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Updown early medieval cemetery in
Eastry,
Kent, United Kingdom, was used as a burial place in the 7th century. Eastry was an important administrative centre in the
Kingdom of Kent. Updown was one of four cemeteries in and around Eastry. The cemetery measures roughly 150 by 80 m (490 by 260 ft) and may have encompassed around 300 graves.
The site was rediscovered in 1973 in the grounds of Updown House, from which the cemetery took its name. Part of it was protected as a
scheduled monument two years later. Excavations followed in 1976 by
Sonia Chadwick Hawkes and 1989 by Brian Philp, both times ahead of development plans in the area: first a pipeline and then a bypass. A total of 78 graves were investigated.
Ancient DNA from five of the burials was tested in the 2020s. This led to the discovery that one of the individuals in the cemetery, dubbed
Updown Girl, had mixed European and West African ancestry. (Full article...)
The first traces of human activity at the site date to approximately 800 BCE, with the first structures being built about 350 BCE. Around 250 CE the complex underwent a major redevelopment with the construction of a massive basal platform that supported a cluster of temples; this was followed around 450 CE by the addition of a row of four
pyramids on a terrace to the south of the main platform.
A number of royal tombs have been excavated that have been identified with named
kings, including the tombs of
Yax Nuun Ayiin I (ruled 379 CE – c. 404),
Siyaj Chan K'awiil II (ruled 411–456),
Wak Chan K'awiil (ruled 537–562) and "
Animal Skull" (ruled c. 593–638). An early tomb in the North Acropolis has been tentatively identified as that of the dynastic founder
Yax Ehb' Xook (ruled c. 90).
A large number of stone monuments were placed in the North Acropolis. By the 9th century CE these included 43
stelae and 30 altars; 18 of these monuments were sculpted with
hieroglyphic texts and royal portraits. A number of these monuments show the influence of the great city of
Teotihuacan in the
Valley of Mexico. (Full article...)
Constructed of gray
andesite-like stone, the temple consists of nine stacked platforms, six square and three circular, topped by a central
dome. It is decorated with 2,672
relief panels and originally 504
Buddha statues. The central dome is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues, each seated inside a perforated
stupa. The monument guides pilgrims through an extensive system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the walls and the
balustrades. Borobudur has one of the world's most extensive collections of Buddhist reliefs.
Built during the reign of the
Sailendra Dynasty, the temple design follows
JavaneseBuddhist architecture, which blends the
Indonesian indigenous tradition of
ancestor worship and the Buddhist concept of attaining
nirvāṇa. The monument is a
shrine to the
Buddha and a place for
Buddhist pilgrimage. Evidence suggests that Borobudur was constructed in the 8th century and subsequently abandoned following the 14th-century decline of
Hindu kingdoms in Java and the
Javanese conversion to Islam. Worldwide knowledge of its existence was sparked in 1814 by
Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, then the
British ruler of Java, who was advised of its location by native Indonesians. Borobudur has since been preserved through several restorations. The largest restoration project was completed at 1983 by the
Indonesian government and
UNESCO, followed by the monument's listing as a UNESCO
World Heritage Site.
Porlock Stone Circle is a
stone circle located on
Exmoor, near the village of
Porlock in the
south-westernEnglish county of
Somerset. The Porlock ring is part of a tradition of stone circle construction that spread throughout much of Britain, Ireland, and
Brittany during the
Late Neolithic and
Early Bronze Age, over a period between 3300 and 900
BCE. The purpose of such monuments is unknown, although archaeologists speculate that the stones represented
supernatural entities for the circles' builders.
Although Exmoor witnessed the construction of many monuments during the Bronze Age, only two stone circles survive in this area, the other being
Withypool Stone Circle. The Porlock circle is about 24 metres (79 feet) in diameter and contains thirteen
green micaceous sandstone rocks; there may originally have been more. Directly to the north-east of the circle is a
cairn connected to a linear stone row. No evidence has been found that allows for
absolute dating of the monument's construction, although archaeologists have suggested that the cairn dates from the Early Bronze Age, the circle being a Middle Bronze Age addition.
A small lead wheel found inside Porlock Stone Circle suggests that the site was visited during the
Romano-British period. The site was rediscovered in the 1920s and since then a variety of stones have been added to it; its current appearance is a composite of prehistoric and modern elements. In 1928 the site was surveyed and
excavated by the archaeologist
Harold St George Gray. A second excavation took place under the leadership of Mark Gillings in 2013. (Full article...)
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King of Sumer and Akkad (
Sumerian: 𒈗𒆠𒂗𒄀𒆠𒌵lugal-ki-en-gi-ki-uri,
Akkadian: šar māt Šumeri u Akkadi) was a royal title in Ancient Mesopotamia combining the titles of "
King of Akkad", the ruling title held by the monarchs of the
Akkadian Empire (2334–2154 BC) with the title of "
King of Sumer". The title simultaneously laid a claim on the legacy and glory of the ancient empire that had been founded by
Sargon of Akkad (r. 2334–2279 BC) and expressed a claim to rule the entirety of
lower Mesopotamia (composed of the regions of
Sumer in the south and Akkad in the north). Despite both of the titles "King of Sumer" and "King of Akkad" having been used by the Akkadian kings, the title was not introduced in its combined form until the reign of the
Neo-Sumerian king
Ur-Nammu (
c. 2112–2095 BC), who created it in an effort to unify the southern and northern parts of lower Mesopotamia under his rule. The older Akkadian kings themselves might have been against linking Sumer and Akkad in such a way.
In later centuries of Mesopotamian history, when the major kingdoms were
Assyria and
Babylon, the title was mostly used by monarchs of Babylon since they ruled lower Mesopotamia. For Assyrian kings, the title became a formal assertion of authority over the city of Babylon and its surroundings; only those Assyrian rulers who actually controlled Babylon used the title and when Assyria permanently lost control of Babylon to the
Neo-Babylonian Empire, the rulers of that empire began using it instead. The final king to claim to be the King of Sumer and Akkad was
Cyrus the Great (r.
c. 559–530 BC) of the
Achaemenid Empire, who assumed several traditional Mesopotamian titles after
his conquest of Babylon in 539 BC. (Full article...)
The
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) designates
World Heritage Sites of outstanding universal value to
cultural or
natural heritage which have been nominated by countries which are signatories to the UNESCO World Heritage Convention, established in 1972. Cultural heritage consists of monuments (such as architectural works, monumental sculptures, or inscriptions), groups of buildings, and sites (including archaeological sites). Natural features (consisting of physical and biological formations), geological and physiographical formations (including habitats of threatened species of animals and plants), and natural sites which are important from the point of view of science, conservation or natural beauty, are defined as natural heritage.
Serbia succeeded the convention on 11 September 2001, following the
breakup of Yugoslavia.
, there are five sites in Serbia on the list and eleven on the tentative list. The first site in Serbia to be added to the list was
Stari Ras and
Sopoćani, inscribed at the 3rd UNESCO session in 1979. Further sites were added to the list in 1986, 2004, 2007, and 2017. All are listed as cultural sites, as determined by the organization's
selection criteria. Four out of five sites date to the
medieval period while the fifth, the
Gamzigrad complex, dates to
late antiquity. The
Medieval Monuments in Kosovo site, first added to the list in 2004 and expanded two years later, has been on UNESCO's list of
endangered sites since 2006 due to difficulties in its management and conservation stemming from the region's political instability. The
Stećci Medieval Tombstones Graveyards site is a transnational entry, shared with three neighboring countries. (Full article...)
A graduate of
Newnham College, Cambridge, Davidson was a Fellow at
Lucy Cavendish College, Cambridge, throughout much of her career. She specialized in the interdisciplinary study of
Celtic,
Anglo-Saxon and
Old Norse religion and folklore, on which she was the author of numerous influential works. Davidson was a prominent member of The Folklore Society, and played an active role in the growth of
folklore studies as a scientific discipline. Throughout her career, Davidson tutored a significant number of aspiring scholars in her fields of study, and was particularly interested in encouraging gifted women to pursue scholarly careers. (Full article...)
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The Luttra Woman is a skeletonised
bog body from the Early
Neolithic period (
radiocarbon-dated 3928–3651 BC) that was discovered near
Luttra, Sweden, on 20 May 1943. The skull had been preserved well, but some bones of the skeleton, in particular many of those between the skull and the pelvis, were missing. The skeleton was assessed as that of a young female. She was deemed short for a Neolithic woman of the region, with an estimated height of 145 cm (4 ft 9 in). Because her stomach contents showed that
raspberries had been her last meal and she was estimated to have been in her early to mid-twenties at her death, she was nicknamed Hallonflickan (Swedish:[ˈhalɔnflɪkːˌan]ⓘ;
lit.'Raspberry Girl'). , she was the earliest-known Neolithic person from
Western Sweden.
No trace of injuries or fatal diseases was found on her remains. She appeared to have been tied up and placed in shallow water at her death or soon afterwards.
Axel Bagge, an archaeologist who assisted at the initial investigation of her remains, suspected that she had been deliberately drowned as either a
human sacrifice or the victim of a
witch execution. Her skeleton has been part of a permanent exhibition titled Forntid på Falbygden (Prehistory in
Falbygden) at the
Falbygden Museum [
sv] in
Falköping, Sweden, beginning in 1994. The exhibition was later supplemented by a
bust of her reconstructed using forensic methods. (Full article...)
In 2007, the Tussauds Group was purchased by the
Blackstone Group, which merged it with
Merlin Entertainments. Warwick Castle was then sold to
Nick Leslau's investment firm, Prestbury Group, under a sale and leaseback agreement. Merlin continues to operate the site under a renewable 35-year lease. (Full article...)
Mylonas was born in
Smyrna, then part of the
Ottoman Empire, and received an elite education. He enrolled in 1919 at the
University of Athens to study
classics, and joined the
Greek Army, where he fought in the
Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922. He witnessed the
destruction of Smyrna in September 1922, and was subsequently taken prisoner; he was recaptured after a brief escape, but eventually secured money from American contacts to bribe his way to release in 1923.
In 1924, Mylonas began working for the
American School of Classical Studies at Athens, with which he retained a lifelong association. He became its first
bursar the following year, and took part in excavations at
Corinth,
Nemea and Olynthus under its auspices. After receiving his
Ph.D. from the University of Athens in 1927, he moved to
Johns Hopkins University to study under
David Moore Robinson, his excavation director from Olynthus. Mylonas received a second Ph.D. the following year, then held a teaching post at the
University of Chicago until 1930. After a brief return to Greece, during which he taught at a
gymnasium and made his first excavations at Eleusis, he was hired by the
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1931, before moving to
Washington University in St. Louis in 1933. He remained there for most of his career, becoming a full professor in 1938, serving as department chair between 1939 and 1964, and being promoted to distinguished professor in 1965.
Mylonas excavated and published widely, working at sites including
Pylos,
Artemision,
Mekyberna,
Polystylos and Aspropotamos. His approach to fundraising for his projects, involving intense engagement with the wealthier citizens of
St. Louis and cultivation of the local press, has been characterized as both pioneering and highly successful. Along with
John Papadimitriou [
el], he was given responsibility for the excavation of Mycenae's Grave Circle B in the early 1950s, and from 1957 until 1985 excavated on the citadel of the site. His excavations helped to establish the chronological relationships between Mycenae's structures, which had been excavated piecemeal over the preceding century, and to determine the function of the site's
Cult Center, to which he gave its name. He returned to Greece in 1969, where he was prominent in the
Archaeological Society of Athens and in efforts to conserve the monuments of the
Acropolis of Athens.
Mylonas received numerous honours and awards, including the
Order of George I, the
Royal Order of the Phoenix and the
Gold Medal of the
Archaeological Institute of America, of which he was the first foreign-born president. His work at Mycenae has been credited with bringing coherence to the previously scattered and sporadically-published record of excavation at the site. At the same time, his practice of arguing for correspondence between the archaeological record and ancient mythical traditions, particularly concerning the
Trojan War and the
Eleusinian Mysteries, was controversial in his day and has generally been discredited since. (Full article...)
Archaeologists have established that long barrows were built by
pastoralist communities shortly after the introduction of
agriculture to Britain from continental Europe. Representing an architectural tradition of long barrow building that was widespread across Neolithic Europe, Chestnuts Long Barrow belongs to a localised regional style of barrows produced in the vicinity of the
River Medway. The long barrows built in this area are now known as the
Medway Megaliths. Chestnuts Long Barrow lies near to both
Addington Long Barrow and
Coldrum Long Barrow on the western side of the river. Two further surviving long barrows,
Kit's Coty House and
Little Kit's Coty House, as well as the destroyed
Smythe's Megalith and possible survivals as the
Coffin Stone and
White Horse Stone, are on the eastern side of the Medway.
The long barrow was built on land previously inhabited in the
Mesolithic period. It consisted of a sub-rectangular earthen
tumulus, estimated to have been 15 metres (50 feet) in length, with a chamber built from
sarsenmegaliths on its eastern end. Both
inhumed and
cremated human remains were placed within this chamber during the Neolithic period, representing at least nine or ten individuals. These remains were found alongside
pottery sherds, stone arrow heads, and a clay pendant. In the
4th centuryAD, a
Romano-British hut was erected next to the long barrow. In the 12th or 13th century, the chamber was dug into and heavily damaged, either by treasure hunters or
iconoclastic Christians. The mound gradually eroded and was completely gone by the twentieth century, leaving only the ruined stone chamber. The ruin attracted the interest of
antiquarians in the 18th and 19th centuries, while
archaeological excavation took place in 1957, followed by limited
reconstruction. The site is on privately owned land. (Full article...)
YBC 7289 is a
Babylonianclay tablet notable for containing an accurate
sexagesimal approximation to the
square root of 2, the length of the diagonal of a
unit square. This number is given to the equivalent of six decimal digits, "the greatest known computational accuracy ... in the ancient world". The tablet is believed to be the work of a student in southern
Mesopotamia from some time between 1800 and 1600 BC. (Full article...)
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Motul de San José is an ancient
Maya site (known anciently as Ik'a', 'Windy Water') located just north of
Lake Petén Itzá in the
Petén Basin region of the southern Maya lowlands. It is a few kilometres from the modern village of
San José, in
Guatemala's northern
department of
Petén. A medium-sized civic-ceremonial centre, it was an important political and economic centre during the
Late Classic period (AD 650–950).
The site was first settled between 600 and 300 BC, in the latter portion of the
Middle Preclassic period, when it most likely was a fairly small site. This
Maya city then had a long and continuous occupational history until the
Early Postclassic, up to around AD 1250, with peaks in the
Late Preclassic and Late Classic periods. Motul de San José had begun to refer to
Tikal as its overlord in the late 4th century AD; by the 7th century it had switched its allegiance to
Calakmul, Tikal's great rival, before returning its allegiance to Tikal in the early 8th century. In the late 8th century Motul de San José appears to have been conquered by
Dos Pilas, capital of the
Petexbatún kingdom.
Most natural resources were easily available in the immediate vicinity of the city. The nearby port at La Trinidad de Nosotros was an important hub for the import of exotic goods and export of local products such as
chert and
ceramics. Other goods not immediately available were likely to have been provided by the city's satellite sites. The local area provided a number of different soils suitable for varied agricultural use, and the port at La Trinidad de Nosotros provided the city with freshwater products such as
turtles,
crocodiles and
freshwater molluscs.
Deer were hunted locally and provided an important source of
protein for the upper class, while
freshwater snails were the main source of protein for commoners.
Motul de San José has been identified as the source of Ik-style polychrome ceramics bearing painted scenes of the Late Classic Maya aristocracy involved in a variety of courtly activities. The Ik-style was characterised by hieroglyphs painted in a pink or pale red colour, scenes with dancers wearing masks, and the realistic representation of subjects as they appeared in life. The city was the capital of a polity that included various satellite sites of varying importance, including a port on the shore of
Lake Petén Itzá. (Full article...)
Dame Agatha Mary Clarissa Christie, Lady Mallowan, DBE (néeMiller; 15 September 1890 – 12 January 1976) was an English writer known for her 66
detective novels and 14 short story collections, particularly those revolving around fictional detectives
Hercule Poirot and
Miss Marple. She also wrote the world's longest-running play, the murder mystery The Mousetrap, which has been performed in the
West End of London since 1952. A writer during the "
Golden Age of Detective Fiction", Christie has been called the "Queen of Crime"—a moniker which is now trademarked by her estate—or the "Queen of Mystery". She also wrote six novels under the pseudonym Mary Westmacott. In 1971, she was made a
Dame (DBE) by
Queen Elizabeth II for her contributions to literature. Guinness World Records lists Christie as the best-selling fiction writer of all time, her novels having sold more than two billion copies.
Christie was born into a wealthy upper-middle-class family in
Torquay, Devon, and was largely home-schooled. She was initially an unsuccessful writer with six consecutive rejections, but this changed in 1920 when The Mysterious Affair at Styles, featuring detective Hercule Poirot, was published. Her first husband was
Archibald Christie; they married in 1914 and had one child before divorcing in 1928. Following the breakdown of her marriage and the death of her mother in 1926 she made international headlines by going missing for eleven days. During both World Wars, she served in hospital dispensaries, acquiring a thorough knowledge of the poisons that featured in many of her novels, short stories, and plays. Following her marriage to
archaeologistMax Mallowan in 1930, she spent several months each year on
digs in the Middle East and used her first-hand knowledge of this profession in her fiction.
According to
UNESCO's
Index Translationum, she remains the
most-translated individual author. Her novel And Then There Were None is one of the
top-selling books of all time, with approximately 100 million copies sold. Christie's stage play The Mousetrap holds the world record for the longest initial run. It opened at the
Ambassadors Theatre in the West End on 25 November 1952, and by 2018 there had been more than 27,500 performances. The play was temporarily closed in 2020 because of
COVID-19 lockdowns in London before it reopened in 2021.
In 1955, Christie was the first recipient of the
Mystery Writers of America's
Grand Master Award. Later that year, Witness for the Prosecution received an
Edgar Award for best play. In 2013, she was voted the best crime writer and The Murder of Roger Ackroyd the best crime novel ever by 600 professional novelists of the
Crime Writers' Association. In 2015, And Then There Were None was named the "World's Favourite Christie" in a vote sponsored by the author's estate. Many of Christie's books and short stories have been adapted for television, radio, video games, and graphic novels. More than 30 feature films are based on her work. (Full article...)
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The Witcham Gravel helmet is a Roman auxiliary cavalry helmet from the first century AD. Only the decorative copper alloy casing remains; an iron core originally fit under the casing, but has now corroded away. The cap, neck guard, and cheek guards were originally
tinned, giving the appearance of a silver helmet encircled by a gold band. The helmet's distinctive feature is the presence of three hollow bosses, out of an original six, that decorate the exterior. No other Roman helmet is known to have such a feature. They may be a decorative embellishment influenced by
Etruscan helmets from the sixth century BC, which had similar, lead-filled bosses, that would have deflected blades.
The helmet was discovered during
peat digging in the parish of
Witcham Gravel,
Cambridgeshire, perhaps during the 1870s. It was said to have been found "at a depth of about four feet", although the exact findspot within Witcham Gravel is unknown; at the time, the parish comprised about 389 acres. The helmet was first published in 1877, when, owned by Thomas Maylin Vipan, it was exhibited to the
Society of Antiquaries of London. When Vipan died in 1891, the
British Museum purchased it from his estate. It remains in the museum's collection, and as of 2021 is on view in Room 49. (Full article...)
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The Corleck Head is an Irish
three-faced stone
idol usually dated to the 1st or 2nd century AD. It is 33 cm (13 in) high and carved from a single block of
limestone. Each face has a similarly enigmatic expression, closely set eyes, a broad and flat nose and a simply drawn mouth. Although its origin cannot be known for certain, its dating to the early
Iron Age is based on similar iconography from contemporary northern European
Celtic artifacts; similar three-faced stone carvings are known from
Romano-British and
Gallo-Roman culture. Archaeologists believe it represents a Celtic god and was part of a larger shrine associated with either a
Celtic head-cult or the
Lughnasadh pagan
harvest festival.
The sculpture was found c. 1855 in the nearby
townland of Drumeague during the excavation of a large
passage tomb, dated to c. 2500 BC. The archaeological evidence indicates the head was used for ceremonial purposes at Corleck hill; a significant cult center during the late Iron-Age, that for millennia after was a major site of celebration during the Lughnasadh. As with any stone artifact, its dating and cultural significance are difficult to establish. The three faces may represent an all-knowing, all-seeing god representing the unity of the past, present and future or ancestral mother-figures representing strength and fertility. The head was found with at least one other stone idol; the Corraghy head consisted was a two-headed sculpture with a
ram's head at one side and a human head with hair and a beard on the other. Today only the human head survives. The idols are collectively known as the "Corleck Gods". Historians assume that they were hidden during the
Early Middle Ages due to their
paganism and association with
human sacrifice; traditions the early Christian church actively suppressed.
It came to national attention in 1937 after its prehistoric dating was realised by the historian Thomas J. Barron; when found it was a local curiosity placed on top of a farm gatepost. Today it is on permanent display at the
National Museum of Ireland in Dublin. It is listed as number 11 in the 2011 Irish Times anthology A History of Ireland in 100 Objects. (Full article...)
The term Harappan is sometimes applied to the Indus civilisation after its
type siteHarappa, the first to be excavated early in the 20th century in what was then the
Punjab province of
British India and is now
Punjab, Pakistan. The discovery of Harappa and soon afterwards
Mohenjo-daro was the culmination of work that had begun after the founding of the
Archaeological Survey of India in the
British Raj in 1861. There were earlier and later cultures called Early Harappan and Late Harappan in the same area. The early Harappan cultures were populated from
Neolithic cultures, the earliest and best-known of which is named after
Mehrgarh, in
Balochistan, Pakistan. Harappan civilisation is sometimes called Mature Harappan to distinguish it from the earlier cultures.
The cities of the ancient Indus were noted for their
urban planning,
baked brick houses, elaborate
drainage systems,
water supply systems, clusters of large non-residential buildings, and techniques of handicraft and
metallurgy.
Mohenjo-daro and
Harappa very likely grew to contain between 30,000 and 60,000 individuals, and the civilisation may have contained between one and five million individuals during its florescence. A gradual
drying of the region during the 3rd millennium BCE may have been the initial stimulus for its urbanisation. Eventually it also reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise and to disperse its population to the east.
Although over a thousand Mature Harappan sites have been reported and nearly a hundred excavated, there are five major urban centres:
Mohenjo-daro in the lower Indus Valley (declared a
UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980 as "Archaeological Ruins at Moenjodaro"), Harappa in the western
Punjab region,
Ganeriwala in the
Cholistan Desert,
Dholavira in western
Gujarat (declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2021 as "Dholavira: A Harappan City"), and
Rakhigarhi in
Haryana. The
Harappan language is not directly attested, and its affiliations are uncertain, as the
Indus script has remained undeciphered. A relationship with the
Dravidian or
Elamo-Dravidian language family is favoured by a section of scholars. (Full article...)
There are numerous important prehistoric remains in Orkney, especially from the
Neolithic period. Four of these remains today constitute a
World Heritage Site. There are diverse reasons for the abundance of the archaeological record. The
sandstone bedrock provides easily workable stone materials and the wind-blown sands have helped preserve several sites. The relative lack of industrialisation and the low incidence of
ploughing have also helped to preserve these ancient monuments. In addition, local tradition hints at both fear and veneration of these ancient structures (perhaps inherited from the
Norse period of occupation), and these attitudes may have helped prevent human interference with their structural integrity.
Prehistory is conventionally divided into a number of shorter periods, but differentiating these various
eras of human history is a complex task – their boundaries are uncertain, and the changes between them are gradual. A number of the sites span long periods of time, and, in particular, the distinctions between the Neolithic and the later periods are not clear cut. However, in general, the
Paleolithic lasted until the retreat of the ice, the
Mesolithic until the adoption of farming and the Neolithic until
metalworking commenced The Neolithic period's extraordinary wealth of structures is not matched by the remains from earlier periods, in which the evidence of human occupation is sparse or non-existent - nor is it matched by remains from the later
Bronze Age, which provides a relative dearth of evidence. However, the subsequent
Iron Age supported a return to monumental building projects, especially
brochs.
Formal excavations were first recorded in the late 18th century. Over time, investigators’ understanding of the structures they uncovered progressed—from little more than folklore in the beginning, to modern archaeological science today.
The fragment is 40 mm (1.6 in) long and made of
silver. Its elongated head is semi-naturalistic, depicting a crouching
quadruped on either side of the skull, divided by a mane along the centre. The boar's eyes are formed from
garnet, and its eyebrows, skull, mouth, tusks, and snout are
gilded. Its head is hollow; in the space underneath, which was filled with soil and plant matter when found, are three rivets that would have attached it to a larger object, probably a helmet. The fragment would probably have formed the crest terminal of one of the "crested helmets" used in Northern Europe during the sixth through eleventh centuries.
The boar's head terminal is one of several representations of the animal on contemporaneous helmets. Boars surmount the
Benty Grange and
Wollaston helmets, and form the ends of the eyebrows of the
Sutton Hoo and perhaps
York helmets. These evidence a thousand-years-long tradition in
Germanic paganism associating boars with the deities, and protection. The Roman historian
Tacitus suggested that the
BalticAesti wore boar symbols in battle to invoke the protection of a mother goddess, and in the Anglo-Saxon epic Beowulf, the poet writes that boar symbols on helmets kept watch over the warriors wearing them. (Full article...)
The cross is thought to date from the 10th century, and exhibits distinctive
Hiberno-Scottish mission influences, in common with several other monuments in the area. Tradition and
folk etymology suggest that the cross marked the burial site of
Camus, leader of the Norse army purportedly defeated by King
Malcolm II at the apocryphal
Battle of Barry. The name of the stone is likely to derive from the extinct
village of Camuston, which has a
Celtic toponymy. (Full article...)
Richard III, the final ruler of the
Plantagenet dynasty, was killed on 22 August 1485 in the
Battle of Bosworth Field, the last significant battle of the
Wars of the Roses. His body was taken to
Greyfriars, Leicester, where it was buried in a crude grave in the friary church. Following the friary's
dissolution in 1538 and subsequent demolition, Richard's tomb was lost. An erroneous account arose that Richard's bones had been thrown into the
River Soar at the nearby
Bow Bridge.
A search for Richard's body began in August 2012, initiated by
Philippa Langley and the Looking for Richard project with the support of the
Richard III Society. The
archaeological excavation was led by
University of Leicester Archaeological Services, working in partnership with
Leicester City Council. On the first day a human skeleton belonging to a man in his thirties was uncovered showing signs of severe injuries. The skeleton, which had several unusual physical features, most notably
scoliosis, a severe curvature of the back, was exhumed to allow scientific analysis. Examination showed that the man had probably been killed either by a blow from a large bladed weapon, probably a
halberd, which cut off the back of his skull and exposed the brain, or by a sword thrust that penetrated all the way through the brain. Other wounds on the skeleton had probably occurred after death as "humiliation injuries", inflicted as a form of posthumous revenge.
The age of the bones at death matched that of Richard when he was killed; they were dated to about the period of his death and were mostly consistent with physical descriptions of the king. Preliminary
DNA analysis showed that
mitochondrial DNA extracted from the bones matched that of two
matrilineal descendants, one 17th-generation and the other 19th-generation, of Richard's sister
Anne of York. Taking these findings into account along with other historical, scientific and archaeological evidence, the University of Leicester announced on 4 February 2013 that it had concluded beyond reasonable doubt that the skeleton was that of Richard III.
As a condition of being allowed to disinter the skeleton, the archaeologists agreed that, if Richard were found, his remains would be reburied in Leicester Cathedral. A controversy arose as to whether an alternative reburial site,
York Minster or
Westminster Abbey, would be more suitable. A legal challenge confirmed there were no public law grounds for the courts to be involved in that decision. Reinterment took place in Leicester on 26 March 2015, during a televised memorial service held in the presence of the
Archbishop of Canterbury and senior members of other Christian denominations. (Full article...)
Image 6
The relics of Sariputta and Moggallana refers to the cremated remains of the Buddhist disciples
Sariputta (
Sanskrit: Śāriputra;
Pali: Sāriputta;Sinhala:Seriyuth සැරියුත්); and
Moggallana (Sanskrit: Maudgalyāyana; Pali: Moggallāna;Sinhala: Mugalan මුගලන්). Sariputta and Moggallana (also called Maha Moggallana) were the two chief disciples of
the Buddha, often stylized as the right hand and left hand disciples of the Buddha respectively. The two disciples were childhood friends who ordained under the Buddha together and are said to have become enlightened as
arahants. The Buddha declared them his two chief disciples, after which they assumed leadership roles in the Buddha's ministry. Both of the chief disciples died a few months before the Buddha near the ancient Indian city of
Rājagaha in what is now
Bihar, and were cremated. According to Buddhist texts, the cremated remains of the disciples were then enshrined in
stupas at notable monasteries of the time, with Sariputta's remains being enshrined at
Jetavana monastery and Moggallana's remains being enshrined at Veḷuvana monastery. However, as of 1999 no modern archaeological reports have confirmed this, although in 1851 discoveries were made at other sites.
In 1851, British
archaeologists Major
Alexander Cunningham and Lieutenant
Frederick Charles Maisey discovered relics attributed to the chief disciples during excavations of stupas in the Indian cities of
Sanchi and
Satdhara. Scholars have theorized that the relics were enshrined in stupas near Rajagaha after the disciples' deaths but were redistributed by later Indian kings such as King
Asoka. Following the discovery, the Satdhara relics were sent to the
Victoria and Albert Museum in London in 1866, while the Sanchi relics are said to have been lost when a ship carrying the remains sank. Following a Buddhist
revival movement in South Asia in the late 19th century, Buddhist organizations including the
Maha Bodhi Society began pressuring the British government to return the relics to Asia so they can be properly venerated, with the British government eventually conceding. The relics were sent to
Sri Lanka in 1947, where they were on display at the
Colombo Museum for nearly two years, and then were put on tour around parts of Asia starting in 1949. The relics were then divided up and permanently relocated in 1952, with portions being enshrined at the
Kaba Aye Pagoda in
Yangon, Burma, the Maha Bodhi Society temple in
Colombo, Sri Lanka, and the Chethiyagiri Vihara in
Sanchi, India. (Full article...)
Born in
Bombay,
British India, to a wealthy middle-class
Scottish family, Crawford moved to England as an infant and was raised by his aunts in London and
Hampshire. He studied
geography at
Keble College, Oxford, and worked briefly in that field before devoting himself professionally to archaeology. Employed by the philanthropist
Henry Wellcome, Crawford oversaw the
excavation of Abu Geili in Sudan before returning to England shortly before the
First World War. During the conflict he served in both the
London Scottish Regiment and the
Royal Flying Corps, where he was involved in ground and aerial reconnaissance along the
Western Front. After an injury forced a period of convalescence in England, he returned to the Western Front, where he was captured by the German Army in 1918 and held as a
prisoner of war until the end of the conflict.
In 1920, Crawford was employed by the Ordnance Survey, touring Britain to plot the location of archaeological sites, and in the process identified several that were previously unknown. Increasingly interested in aerial archaeology, he used
Royal Air Force photographs to identify the extent of the
Stonehenge Avenue, excavating it in 1923. With the archaeologist
Alexander Keiller, he conducted an aerial survey of many counties in southern England and raised the finances to secure the land around
Stonehenge for
The National Trust. In 1927, he established the scholarly journal Antiquity, which contained contributions from many of Britain's most prominent archaeologists, and in 1939 he served as president of
The Prehistoric Society. An
internationalist and
socialist, he came under the influence of
Marxism and for a time became a
Soviet sympathiser. During the
Second World War he worked with the
National Buildings Record, photographically documenting
Southampton. After retiring in 1946, he refocused his attention on Sudanese archaeology and wrote several further books prior to his death.
Friends and colleagues remembered Crawford as a cantankerous and irritable individual. His contributions to British archaeology, including in Antiquity and aerial archaeology, have been widely acclaimed; some have referred to him as one of the great pioneering figures in the field. His photographic archive remained of use to archaeologists into the 21st century. A biography of Crawford by Kitty Hauser was published in 2008. (Full article...)
Image 8
Buckton Castle was a
medievalenclosure castle near
Carrbrook in
Stalybridge,
Greater Manchester, England. It was surrounded by a 2.8-metre-wide (9 ft) stone
curtain wall and a ditch 10 metres (33 ft) wide by 6 metres (20 ft) deep. Buckton is one of the earliest stone castles in North West England and only survives as buried remains overgrown with heather and peat. It was most likely built and demolished in the 12th century. The earliest surviving record of the site dates from 1360, by which time it was lying derelict. The few finds retrieved during archaeological investigations indicate that Buckton Castle may not have been completed.
In the 16th century, the site may have been used as a beacon for the
Pilgrimage of Grace. During the 18th century, the castle was of interest to treasure hunters following rumours that gold and silver had been discovered at Buckton. The site was used as an anti-aircraft decoy site during the Second World War. Between 1996 and 2010, Buckton Castle was investigated by archaeologists as part of the Tameside Archaeology Survey, first by the University of Manchester Archaeological Unit then the University of Salford's Centre for Applied Archaeology. The project involved
community archaeology, and more than 60 volunteers took part. The castle, close to the Buckton Vale Quarry, is a
Scheduled Ancient Monument. (Full article...)
Ancient Egypt reached the pinnacle of its power during the New Kingdom, ruling much of
Nubia and a sizable portion of the
Levant. After this period, it entered an era of slow decline. During the course of its history, Ancient Egypt was invaded or conquered by a number of foreign powers, including the
Hyksos, the
Nubians, the
Assyrians, the
Achaemenid Persians, and the
Macedonians under
Alexander the Great. The Greek
Ptolemaic Kingdom, formed in the aftermath of Alexander's death, ruled until 30BC, when, under
Cleopatra, it fell to the
Roman Empire and became
a Roman province. Egypt remained under Roman control until the 640s AD, when it was
conquered by the
Rashidun Caliphate.
The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the
Nile River valley for agriculture. The predictable
flooding and controlled
irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and
social development and culture. With resources to spare, the
administration sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions, the early development of an independent
writing system, the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade with surrounding regions, and
a military intended to assert Egyptian dominance. Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite
scribes, religious leaders, and administrators under the control of a
pharaoh, who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people in the context of an elaborate system of
religious beliefs.[1] The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the
quarrying,
surveying, and construction techniques that supported the building of monumental
pyramids,
temples, and
obelisks; a system of
mathematics, a practical and effective
system of medicine, irrigation systems, and agricultural production techniques, the first known planked boats,
Egyptian faience and glass technology, new forms of
literature, and the
earliest known peace treaty, made with the
Hittites. Ancient Egypt has left a lasting legacy. Its
art and
architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities were carried off to far corners of the world. Its monumental ruins have
inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for millennia. A newfound respect for antiquities and excavations in the early modern period by Europeans and Egyptians has led to the
scientific investigation of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy. (Full article...)
Tikal was the capital of a conquest state that became one of the most powerful kingdoms of the ancient Maya. Though monumental architecture at the site dates back as far as the 4th century BC, Tikal reached its apogee during the
Classic Period, c. 200 to 900. During this time, the
city dominated much of the Maya region politically, economically, and militarily, while interacting with areas throughout
Mesoamerica such as the great metropolis of
Teotihuacan in the distant
Valley of Mexico. There is evidence that Tikal was conquered by Teotihuacan in the 4th century AD. Following the end of the Late Classic Period, no new major monuments were built at Tikal and there is evidence that elite palaces were burned. These events were coupled with a gradual population decline, culminating with the site's abandonment by the end of the 10th century.
Tikal is the best understood of any of the large lowland Maya cities, with a long
dynastic ruler list, the discovery of the tombs of many of the rulers on this list and the investigation of their
monuments, temples and palaces. (Full article...)
Image 11
Iximcheʼ (/iʃimˈtʃeʔ/) (or Iximché using
Spanish orthography) is a
Pre-ColumbianMesoamericanarchaeological site in the western highlands of
Guatemala. Iximche was the capital of the
Late PostclassicKaqchikelMaya kingdom from 1470 until its abandonment in 1524. The architecture of the site included a number of
pyramid-temples, palaces and two
Mesoamerican ballcourts. Excavators uncovered the poorly preserved remains of painted murals on some of the buildings and ample evidence of
human sacrifice. The ruins of Iximche were declared a Guatemalan National Monument in the 1960s. The site has a small museum displaying a number of pieces found there, including sculptures and ceramics. It is open daily.
For many years the
Kaqchikel served as loyal allies of the
Kʼicheʼ Maya. The growing power of the Kaqchikel within the alliance eventually caused such friction that the Kaqchikel were forced to flee the Kʼicheʼ capital and founded the city of Iximche. The Kaqchikel established their new capital upon an easily defensible ridge almost surrounded by deep ravines. Iximche developed quickly as a city and within 50 years of its foundation it had reached its maximum extent. The rulers of Iximche were four principal lords drawn from the four main clans of the Kaqchikel, although it was the lords of the Sotzʼil and Xahil clans who held the real power.
After the initial establishment of Iximche, the Kʼicheʼ left the Kaqchikel in peace for a number of years. The peace did not last and the Kaqchikel soundly defeated their former overlords around 1491. This was followed by infighting among the Kaqchikel clans with the rebel clans finally being overcome in 1493. Wars against the Kʼicheʼ continued throughout the early 16th century. When the Spanish
conquistadors arrived in Mexico, the
Aztec emperor sent messengers to warn the Kaqchikel. After the surrender of the Aztecs to
Hernán Cortés, Iximche sent its own messengers to offer a Kaqchikel alliance with the Spanish.
Smallpox decimated the population of Iximche before the physical arrival of the Europeans. At the time of the
Spanish Conquest, Iximche was the second most important city in the
Guatemalan Highlands, after the Kʼicheʼ capital at
Qʼumarkaj. Conquistador
Pedro de Alvarado was initially well received in the city in 1524 and the Kaqchikel kings provided the Spanish with native allies to assist in the conquest of the other highland Maya kingdoms. Iximche was declared the first capital of the Kingdom of Guatemala in the same year. Due to excessive Spanish demands for tribute, the Kaqchikel soon broke the alliance and deserted their capital, which was burned 2 years later by Spanish deserters. The Europeans founded a new town nearby but abandoned it in 1527 due to the continued hostility of the Kaqchikel, who finally surrendered in 1530.
The ruins of Iximche were first described by a Guatemalan historian in the late 17th century. They were visited various times by scholars during the 19th century, who published plans and descriptions. Serious investigations of the site started in the 1940s and continued sporadically until the early 1970s. In 1980, during the
Guatemalan Civil War, a meeting took place at the ruins between guerillas and Maya leaders that resulted in the guerillas stating that they would defend indigenous rights. A ritual was carried out at the site in 1989 in order to reestablish the ruins as a sacred place for Maya ceremonies. United States President
George W. Bush visited the site in 2007, and in the same year Iximche was the venue for the III Continental Summit of Indigenous Peoples and Nationalities of Abya Yala. (Full article...)
A graduate of
Newnham College, Cambridge, Davidson was a Fellow at
Lucy Cavendish College, Cambridge, throughout much of her career. She specialized in the interdisciplinary study of
Celtic,
Anglo-Saxon and
Old Norse religion and folklore, on which she was the author of numerous influential works. Davidson was a prominent member of The Folklore Society, and played an active role in the growth of
folklore studies as a scientific discipline. Throughout her career, Davidson tutored a significant number of aspiring scholars in her fields of study, and was particularly interested in encouraging gifted women to pursue scholarly careers. (Full article...)
The Erbil Citadel, locally called Qelat (
Kurdish: قەڵای ھەولێر , قەراتی هەولێرێ, Qelay Hewlêr) is a
tell or occupied mound, and the historical city centre of
Erbil in the
Kurdistan Region of Iraq. The citadel has been included in the World Heritage List since 21 June 2014.
The earliest evidence for occupation of the citadel mound dates to the 5th millennium BC, and possibly earlier. It appears for the first time in historical sources in the
Ebla tablets around 4000 BC, and gained particular importance during the
Neo-Assyrian period. During the
Sassanian period and the
Abbasid Caliphate, Erbil was an important centre for
Christianity. After the
Mongols captured the citadel in 1258, the importance of Erbil declined. During the 20th century, the urban structure was significantly modified, as a result of which a number of houses and public buildings were destroyed. In 2007, the High Commission for Erbil Citadel Revitalization (HCECR) was established to oversee the
restoration of the citadel. In the same year, all inhabitants, except one family, were evicted from the citadel as part of a large restoration project. Since then,
archaeological research and restoration works have been carried out at and around the tell by various international teams and in cooperation with local specialists. The government plans to have 50 families live in the citadel once it is renovated.
The buildings on top of the tell stretch over a roughly oval area of 430 by 340 metres (1,410 ft × 1,120 ft) occupying 102,000 square metres (1,100,000 sq ft). The only religious structure that currently survives is the
Mulla Afandi Mosque. The mound rises between 25 and 32 metres (82 and 105 ft) from the surrounding plain. When it was fully occupied, the citadel was divided in three districts or mahallas: from east to west the Serai, the Takya and the Topkhana. The Serai was occupied by notable families; the Takya district was named after the homes of
dervishes, which are called takyas; and the Topkhana district housed craftsmen and farmers. (Full article...)
Image 15
Roman roads in Judaea refers to an extensive network of
roads built in the
Roman period in what was then
Judaea (later
Syria Palaestina). Remains of some still exist to this day. Many of these roads, including the graded paths, were built by the
Jewish population of Judaea, used for
pilgrimage to
Jerusalem. The Romans used the existing infrastructure for the empire's transportation needs in the province.
The purpose of constructing these roads in ancient Rome was to establish an extensive network of thoroughfares, similar to those found throughout the
Roman Empire. These roads primarily served the movement of
Roman military units and also facilitated public transportation, including mail delivery and travel for central government officials. Additionally, the roads played an economic role in transporting goods and people.
Some of the roads in the Judaea were paved following the
First Jewish–Roman War (66-73), some during the time of Roman emperor
Hadrian, and some during the reign of Emperor
Marcus Aurelius. The prominent characteristic of these roads was their use of the most convenient route possible from one point to another: a route that avoided natural obstacles, remained passable throughout the year, and had a gentle slope – suitable for pedestrian travel, riding, and vehicle passage. Along the roads, milestones were erected to mark the distance and direction, and there were forts and watchtowers where soldiers guarded the roads.
There are modern roads in Israel that utilize the routes of the ancient Roman roads. The most prominent example is the
Ashkelon–
Kiryat Gat–
Hebron road (today
Highway 35), which ascends to Hebron along a winding route with minimal incline. However, most of the ancient Roman roads in
modern Israel were destroyed by the
British, who paved roads over them.
From the headquarters of the
Legio VI Ferrata, which camped at
Legio, a strategic location on the Caesarea–Beit She'an road in the southern foothills of the
Jezreel Valley near the modern Megiddo junction, oads were constructed in the year 120 CE to the provincial capital
Caesarea, to
Beit She'an, to
Sepphoris, and to
Acre. (Full article...)
Image 16
The Trundle is an
Iron Agehillfort on St Roche's Hill about 4 miles (6 km) north of
Chichester,
West Sussex, England, built on the site of a
causewayed enclosure, a form of early Neolithic
earthwork found in northwestern Europe. Causewayed enclosures were built in England from shortly before 3700 BC until at least 3500 BC; they are characterized by the full or partial enclosure of an area with ditches that are interrupted by gaps, or causeways. Their purpose is not known; they may have been settlements, meeting places, or ritual sites. Hillforts were built as early as 1000 BC, in the Late
Bronze Age, and continued to be built through the Iron Age until shortly before the
Roman occupation.
A chapel dedicated to
St Roche was built on the hill around the end of the 14th century; it was in ruins by 1570. A windmill and a
beacon were subsequently built on the hill. The site was occasionally used as a meeting place in the post-medieval period.
The hillfort is still a substantial earthwork, but the Neolithic site was unknown until 1925 when archaeologist
O.G.S. Crawford obtained an
aerial photograph of the Trundle, clearly showing additional structures inside the ramparts of the hillfort. Causewayed enclosures were new to archaeology at the time, with only five known by 1930, and the photograph persuaded archaeologist
E. Cecil Curwen to excavate the site in 1928 and 1930. These early digs established a construction date of about 500 BC to 100 BC for the hillfort and proved the existence of the Neolithic site.
In 2011, the Gathering Time project published an analysis of
radiocarbon dates from almost forty British causewayed enclosures, including some from the Trundle. The conclusion was that the Neolithic part of the site was probably constructed no earlier than the mid-fourth millennium BC. A review of the site in 1995 by Alastair Oswald noted the presence of fifteen possible Iron Age house platforms within the hillfort's ramparts. (Full article...)
Takalik Abaj is representative of the first blossoming of Maya culture that had occurred by about 400 BC. The site includes a Maya royal tomb and examples of
Maya hieroglyphic inscriptions that are among the earliest from the Maya region. Excavation is continuing at the site; the monumental
architecture and persistent tradition of sculpture in a variety of styles suggest the site was of some importance.
Finds from the site indicate contact with the distant metropolis of
Teotihuacan in the
Valley of Mexico and imply that Takalik Abaj was conquered by it or its allies. Takalik Abaj was linked to long-distance
Maya trade routes that shifted over time but allowed the city to participate in a trade network that included the
Guatemalan highlands and the Pacific coastal plain from
Mexico to
El Salvador.
Takalik Abaj was a sizeable city with the principal
architecture clustered into four main groups spread across nine terraces. While some of these were natural features, others were artificial constructions requiring an enormous investment in labor and materials. The site featured a sophisticated water drainage system and a wealth of sculptured monuments. (Full article...)
The
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), the official
Indian governmentagency for the preservation of ancient monuments, discovered Lothal in 1954. Excavation work in Lothal commenced on 13 February 1955 and continued till 19 May 1960. According to the ASI, arguably Lothal had the world's earliest known
dock, which connected the city to an ancient course of the
Sabarmati river on the
trade route. This trade route stretched between
Harappan cities in
Sindh (
Pakistan) and the peninsula of
Saurashtra where the surrounding
Kutch desert of today was a part of the
Arabian Sea. However, this interpretation has been challenged by other
archaeologists, who argue
Khufu's Red Sea harbour at
Wadi al-Jarf (
Egypt) is older, dating its construction to between 2580 to
2550 BCE and that Lothal was a comparatively small town, and that the "dock" was primarily an
irrigation tank.
Lothal was a vital and thriving trade centre in ancient times, with its trade of
beads,
gems and valuable ornaments reaching the far corners of West Asia and Africa. The techniques and tools they pioneered for bead-making and in
metallurgy have stood the test of time for over 4000 years.
Lothal is situated near the village of
Saragwala in the
Dholka Taluka of
Ahmedabad district. It is six kilometres south-east of the Lothal-
Bhurkhi railway station on the
Ahmedabad-
Bhavnagar railway line. It is also connected by all-weather roads to the cities of Ahmedabad (85 km/53 mi), Bhavnagar,
Rajkot and
Dholka. The nearest cities are Dholka and
Bagodara. Resuming excavation in 1961, archaeologists unearthed trenches sunk on the northern, eastern and western flanks of the mound, bringing to light the inlet channels and nullah ("ravine", or "gully") connecting the dock with the river. The findings consist of a
mound, a township, a
marketplace, and the 'dock'. Adjacent to the excavated areas stands the Archaeological Museum, where some of the most prominent collections of
Harappa-era antiquities in India are displayed.
The remains of an individual who would have stood about 1.1 m (3 ft 7 in) in height were discovered in 2003 at
Liang Bua cave. Partial skeletons of at least nine individuals have been recovered, including one complete skull, referred to as "LB1".
This
hominin was at first considered remarkable for its survival until relatively recent times, initially thought to be only 12,000 years ago. However, more extensive stratigraphic and chronological work has pushed the dating of the most recent evidence of its existence back to 50,000 years ago. The Homo floresiensis skeletal material is now dated from 60,000 to 100,000 years ago;
stone tools recovered alongside the skeletal remains were from
archaeological horizons ranging from 50,000 to 190,000 years ago. (Full article...)
No traces have yet been found of either a
Neanderthal presence or of Homo sapiens during the
Pleistoceneinterglacials, the first indications of humans in Scotland occurring only after the
ice retreated in the
11th millennium BC. Since that time, the landscape of Scotland has been altered dramatically by both human and natural forces. Initially,
sea levels were lower than at present due to the large volume of ice that remained. This meant that the
Orkney archipelago and many of the
Inner Hebridean islands were attached to the mainland, as was the present-day island of
Great Britain to
Continental Europe. Much of the present-day
North Sea was also dry land until after 4000
BC.
Dogger Bank, for example was part of a large peninsula connected to the European continent. This would have made travel to western and northern
Scotland relatively easy for early human settlers. The subsequent
isostatic rise of land makes estimating post-glacial coastlines a complex task and there are numerous
raised beaches around Scotland's coastline.
Many of the sites are located in the
Highlands and Islands. This may be because of the relatively sparse modern populations and consequent lack of
disturbance. Much of the area also has a thick covering of
peat that preserves stone fragments, although the associated
acidic conditions tend to dissolve organic materials. There are also numerous important remains in the Orkney archipelago, where sand and
arable land predominate. Local tradition hints at both a fear and veneration of these ancient structures that may have helped to preserve their integrity.
Differentiating the various
periods of human history involved is a complex task. The
Paleolithic lasted until the retreat of the ice, the
Mesolithic until the adoption of farming and the
Neolithic until
metalworking commenced. These events may have begun at different times in different parts of the country. A number of the sites span very long periods of time and in particular, the distinctions between the Neolithic and the later periods are not clear cut. (Full article...)
The idea of a Eurasiatic superfamily dates back more than 100 years.
Joseph Greenberg's proposal, dating to the 1990s, is the most widely discussed version. In 2013,
Mark Pagel and three colleagues published what they believe to be statistical evidence for a Eurasiatic language family.
The branches of Eurasiatic vary between proposals, but typically include the widely rejected
Altaicmacrofamily (comprised in part of
Mongolic,
Tungusic and
Turkic),
Chukchi-Kamchatkan,
Eskimo–Aleut,
Indo-European, and
Uralic—although Greenberg uses the controversial
Uralic-Yukaghir classification instead. Other branches sometimes included are the
Kartvelian and
Dravidian families, as proposed by Pagel et al., in addition to the
language isolatesNivkh,
Etruscan and Greenberg's "Korean–Japanese–Ainu". Some proposals group Eurasiatic with even larger macrofamilies, such as
Nostratic; again, many other professional linguists regard the methods used as invalid.
The hypothesis has fallen out of favour and has limited degrees of acceptance, predominantly among a minority of Russian linguists. Linguists worldwide reject Eurasiatic and many other macrofamily hypotheses such as
Nostratic, with the exception of
Dené–Yeniseian languages, which has been met with some degree of acceptance. (Full article...)
He was born
out of wedlock in August 1888 to Sarah Junner (1861–1959), a governess, and
Sir Thomas Chapman, 7th Baronet (1846–1919), an
Anglo-Irish aristocrat. Chapman left his wife and family in Ireland to cohabit with Junner. Chapman and Junner called themselves Mr and Mrs Lawrence, using the surname of Sarah's likely father; her mother had been employed as a servant for a Lawrence family when she became pregnant with Sarah. In 1896, the Lawrences moved to
Oxford, where Thomas attended the
High School and then studied history at
Jesus College, Oxford, from 1907 to 1910. Between 1910 and 1914 he worked as an archaeologist for the
British Museum, chiefly at
Carchemish in
Ottoman Syria.
Soon after the outbreak of war in 1914 he volunteered for the
British Army and was stationed at the
Arab Bureau (established in 1916)
intelligence unit in Egypt. In 1916, he travelled to Mesopotamia and to Arabia on intelligence missions and became involved with the Arab Revolt as a liaison to the Arab forces, along with other British officers, supporting the Arab
Kingdom of Hejaz's independence war against its former overlord, the Ottoman Empire. He worked closely with
Emir Faisal, a leader of the revolt, and he participated, sometimes as leader, in military actions against the
Ottoman armed forces, culminating in the capture of
Damascus in October 1918.
After the First World War, Lawrence joined the British
Foreign Office, working with the British government and with Faisal. In 1922, he retreated from public life and spent the years until 1935 serving as an enlisted man, mostly in the
Royal Air Force (RAF), with a brief period in the Army. During this time, he published his best-known work Seven Pillars of Wisdom (1926), an autobiographical account of his participation in the Arab Revolt. He also translated books into English, and wrote
The Mint, which detailed his time in the Royal Air Force working as an ordinary
aircraftman. He corresponded extensively and was friendly with well-known artists, writers, and politicians. For the RAF, he participated in the development of rescue motorboats.
Lawrence's public image resulted in part from the sensationalised reporting of the Arab revolt by American journalist
Lowell Thomas, as well as from Seven Pillars of Wisdom. On 19 May 1935, six days after being injured in a motorcycle accident in
Dorset, Lawrence died at the age of 46. (Full article...)
The earliest
archaeological evidence of human activity on the site consists of a
Neolithiccausewayed enclosure and
bank barrow. In about 1800 BC, during the
Bronze Age, the site was used for growing crops before being abandoned. Maiden Castle itself was built in about 600 BC; the early phase was a simple and unremarkable site, similar to many other hill forts in Britain and covering 6.4 ha (16 acres).
Around 450 BC it was greatly expanded and the enclosed area nearly tripled in size to 19 ha (47 acres), making it the largest hill fort in Britain and, by some definitions, the largest in Europe. At the same time, Maiden Castle's defences were made more complex with the addition of further
ramparts and
ditches. Around 100 BC, habitation at the hill fort went into decline and became concentrated at the eastern end of the site. It was occupied until at least the
Roman period, by which time it was in the territory of the
Durotriges, a
Celtic tribe.
After the
Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century AD, Maiden Castle appears to have been abandoned, although the Romans may have had a military presence on the site. In the late 4th century AD, a temple and ancillary buildings were constructed. In the 6th century AD the hill top was entirely abandoned and was used only for agriculture during the medieval period. Maiden Castle has provided inspiration for composer
John Ireland and authors
Thomas Hardy and
John Cowper Powys. The study of hill forts was popularised in the 19th century by archaeologist
Augustus Pitt Rivers. In the 1930s, archaeologist
Mortimer Wheeler and
Tessa Verney Wheeler undertook the first
archaeological excavations at Maiden Castle, raising its profile among the public. Further excavations were carried out under Niall Sharples, which added to an understanding of the site and repaired damage caused in part by the large number of visitors. Today the site is protected as a
Scheduled Monument and is maintained by
English Heritage. (Full article...)
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The Gozo Phoenician shipwreck is a seventh-century-BC
shipwreck of a
Phoenician trade ship lying at a depth of 110 meters (360 ft). The wreck was discovered in 2007 during a
sonar survey off the coast of
Malta's
Gozo island. Since 2014 it has been the object of a multidisciplinary project led by University of Malta along with many other national and international entities. The Gozo shipwreck archaeological excavation is the first maritime archaeological survey to explore shipwrecks with divers beyond a depth of 100 meters (330 ft). (Full article...)
The Burney Relief (also known as the Queen of the Night relief) is a
Mesopotamianterracotta plaque in high
relief of the
Isin-Larsa period or Old-
Babylonian period, depicting a winged, nude, goddess-like figure with bird's talons, flanked by owls, and perched upon two lions. The relief is displayed in the
British Museum in London, which has dated it between 1800 and 1750 BCE. It originates from southern Mesopotamia, but the exact find-site is unknown. Apart from its distinctive
iconography, the piece is noted for its high relief and relatively large size making it a very rare survival from the period. The authenticity of the object has been questioned from its first appearance in the 1930s, but opinion has generally moved in its favour over the subsequent decades. (Full article...)
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The Temple of Eshmun (
Arabic: معبد أشمون) is an ancient
place of worship dedicated to
Eshmun, the
Phoenician god of healing. It is located near the
Awali river, 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) northeast of
Sidon in southwestern
Lebanon. The site was occupied from the 7th century BC to the 8th century AD, suggesting an integrated relationship with the nearby city of Sidon. Although originally constructed by Sidonian king
Eshmunazar II in the
Achaemenid era (
c. 529–333 BC) to celebrate the city's recovered wealth and stature, the temple complex was greatly expanded by
Bodashtart,
Yatonmilk and later monarchs. Because the continued expansion spanned many centuries of alternating independence and foreign
hegemony, the sanctuary features a wealth of different architectural and decorative styles and influences.
The sanctuary consists of an
esplanade and a grand court limited by a huge
limestone terrace wall that supports a monumental
podium which was once topped by Eshmun's Greco-Persian style
marble temple. The sanctuary features a series of ritual
ablution basins fed by canals channeling water from the Asclepius river (modern
Awali) and from the sacred "YDLL" spring; these installations were used for therapeutic and purificatory purposes that characterize the cult of Eshmun. The sanctuary site has yielded many artifacts of value, especially those inscribed with
Phoenician texts, such as the
Bodashtart inscriptions and the
Eshmun inscription, providing valuable insight into the site's history and that of ancient Sidon.
The Eshmun Temple was improved during the early
Roman Empire with a colonnade street, but declined after earthquakes and fell into oblivion as
Christianity replaced
polytheism and its large limestone blocks were used to build later structures. The temple site was rediscovered in 1900 by local
treasure hunters who stirred the curiosity of international scholars.
Maurice Dunand, a French archaeologist, thoroughly excavated the site from 1963 until the beginning of the
Lebanese Civil War in 1975. After the end of the hostilities and the retreat of
Israel from
Southern Lebanon, the site was rehabilitated and inscribed to the
World Heritage Site tentative list. (Full article...)
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The Trundle is an
Iron Agehillfort on St Roche's Hill about 4 miles (6 km) north of
Chichester,
West Sussex, England, built on the site of a
causewayed enclosure, a form of early Neolithic
earthwork found in northwestern Europe. Causewayed enclosures were built in England from shortly before 3700 BC until at least 3500 BC; they are characterized by the full or partial enclosure of an area with ditches that are interrupted by gaps, or causeways. Their purpose is not known; they may have been settlements, meeting places, or ritual sites. Hillforts were built as early as 1000 BC, in the Late
Bronze Age, and continued to be built through the Iron Age until shortly before the
Roman occupation.
A chapel dedicated to
St Roche was built on the hill around the end of the 14th century; it was in ruins by 1570. A windmill and a
beacon were subsequently built on the hill. The site was occasionally used as a meeting place in the post-medieval period.
The hillfort is still a substantial earthwork, but the Neolithic site was unknown until 1925 when archaeologist
O.G.S. Crawford obtained an
aerial photograph of the Trundle, clearly showing additional structures inside the ramparts of the hillfort. Causewayed enclosures were new to archaeology at the time, with only five known by 1930, and the photograph persuaded archaeologist
E. Cecil Curwen to excavate the site in 1928 and 1930. These early digs established a construction date of about 500 BC to 100 BC for the hillfort and proved the existence of the Neolithic site.
In 2011, the Gathering Time project published an analysis of
radiocarbon dates from almost forty British causewayed enclosures, including some from the Trundle. The conclusion was that the Neolithic part of the site was probably constructed no earlier than the mid-fourth millennium BC. A review of the site in 1995 by Alastair Oswald noted the presence of fifteen possible Iron Age house platforms within the hillfort's ramparts. (Full article...)
The fragment is 40 mm (1.6 in) long and made of
silver. Its elongated head is semi-naturalistic, depicting a crouching
quadruped on either side of the skull, divided by a mane along the centre. The boar's eyes are formed from
garnet, and its eyebrows, skull, mouth, tusks, and snout are
gilded. Its head is hollow; in the space underneath, which was filled with soil and plant matter when found, are three rivets that would have attached it to a larger object, probably a helmet. The fragment would probably have formed the crest terminal of one of the "crested helmets" used in Northern Europe during the sixth through eleventh centuries.
The boar's head terminal is one of several representations of the animal on contemporaneous helmets. Boars surmount the
Benty Grange and
Wollaston helmets, and form the ends of the eyebrows of the
Sutton Hoo and perhaps
York helmets. These evidence a thousand-years-long tradition in
Germanic paganism associating boars with the deities, and protection. The Roman historian
Tacitus suggested that the
BalticAesti wore boar symbols in battle to invoke the protection of a mother goddess, and in the Anglo-Saxon epic Beowulf, the poet writes that boar symbols on helmets kept watch over the warriors wearing them. (Full article...)
The site has been inhabited for 6,000 years, first by
hunter-gatherers and later by
Khoikhoi herders. Both
ethnic groups used it as a place of worship and a site to conduct
shamanist rituals. In the process of these rituals at least 2,500 items of rock carvings have been created, as well as a few rock paintings. Displaying one of the largest concentrations of rock
petroglyphs in Africa,
UNESCO approved Twyfelfontein as Namibia's first
World Heritage Site in 2007. (Full article...)
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Iximcheʼ (/iʃimˈtʃeʔ/) (or Iximché using
Spanish orthography) is a
Pre-ColumbianMesoamericanarchaeological site in the western highlands of
Guatemala. Iximche was the capital of the
Late PostclassicKaqchikelMaya kingdom from 1470 until its abandonment in 1524. The architecture of the site included a number of
pyramid-temples, palaces and two
Mesoamerican ballcourts. Excavators uncovered the poorly preserved remains of painted murals on some of the buildings and ample evidence of
human sacrifice. The ruins of Iximche were declared a Guatemalan National Monument in the 1960s. The site has a small museum displaying a number of pieces found there, including sculptures and ceramics. It is open daily.
For many years the
Kaqchikel served as loyal allies of the
Kʼicheʼ Maya. The growing power of the Kaqchikel within the alliance eventually caused such friction that the Kaqchikel were forced to flee the Kʼicheʼ capital and founded the city of Iximche. The Kaqchikel established their new capital upon an easily defensible ridge almost surrounded by deep ravines. Iximche developed quickly as a city and within 50 years of its foundation it had reached its maximum extent. The rulers of Iximche were four principal lords drawn from the four main clans of the Kaqchikel, although it was the lords of the Sotzʼil and Xahil clans who held the real power.
After the initial establishment of Iximche, the Kʼicheʼ left the Kaqchikel in peace for a number of years. The peace did not last and the Kaqchikel soundly defeated their former overlords around 1491. This was followed by infighting among the Kaqchikel clans with the rebel clans finally being overcome in 1493. Wars against the Kʼicheʼ continued throughout the early 16th century. When the Spanish
conquistadors arrived in Mexico, the
Aztec emperor sent messengers to warn the Kaqchikel. After the surrender of the Aztecs to
Hernán Cortés, Iximche sent its own messengers to offer a Kaqchikel alliance with the Spanish.
Smallpox decimated the population of Iximche before the physical arrival of the Europeans. At the time of the
Spanish Conquest, Iximche was the second most important city in the
Guatemalan Highlands, after the Kʼicheʼ capital at
Qʼumarkaj. Conquistador
Pedro de Alvarado was initially well received in the city in 1524 and the Kaqchikel kings provided the Spanish with native allies to assist in the conquest of the other highland Maya kingdoms. Iximche was declared the first capital of the Kingdom of Guatemala in the same year. Due to excessive Spanish demands for tribute, the Kaqchikel soon broke the alliance and deserted their capital, which was burned 2 years later by Spanish deserters. The Europeans founded a new town nearby but abandoned it in 1527 due to the continued hostility of the Kaqchikel, who finally surrendered in 1530.
The ruins of Iximche were first described by a Guatemalan historian in the late 17th century. They were visited various times by scholars during the 19th century, who published plans and descriptions. Serious investigations of the site started in the 1940s and continued sporadically until the early 1970s. In 1980, during the
Guatemalan Civil War, a meeting took place at the ruins between guerillas and Maya leaders that resulted in the guerillas stating that they would defend indigenous rights. A ritual was carried out at the site in 1989 in order to reestablish the ruins as a sacred place for Maya ceremonies. United States President
George W. Bush visited the site in 2007, and in the same year Iximche was the venue for the III Continental Summit of Indigenous Peoples and Nationalities of Abya Yala. (Full article...)
Letocetum is the ancient remains of a
Roman settlement. It was an important military staging post and posting station near the junction of
Watling Street, the Roman military road to north
Wales, and
Icknield (or Ryknild) Street (now the
A38). The site is now within the parish of
Wall, Staffordshire,
England. It is owned and run by the
National Trust, under the name Letocetum Roman Baths Site & Museum. The site is in the guardianship of
English Heritage as Wall Roman Site.
The Romans came to Letocetum in 50
CE to establish a fortress during the early years of the
invasion of Britain. The land could not support large numbers of soldiers and Letocetum, at an important cross-roads, became a large scale posting station. The settlement developed with successive bath houses and mansiones built to serve the official travellers as well as the growing civilian population. It is known mainly from detailed excavations in 1912–13, which concentrated on the sites of the
mansio and bath-house.
The remains visible today are those of the stone bath house and mansio, built in approximately 130 CE after Letocetum ceased to have a military function and became a civilian settlement. The settlement reached its peak during the 2nd and 3rd centuries and at this time occupied 8.1–12 hectares (20–30 acres). At the end of the 3rd century, the town relocated within high defensive walls astride
Watling Street. After the Romans left early in the 5th century the settlement went into decline. The modern village of
Wall emerged in the land once occupied by Letocetum. (Full article...)
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Golondrina points (formerly Plainview Golondrina) are
lanceolatespear or
dartprojectile points, of medium size, dated to the transitional
Paleo-Indian Period, between 9000–7000
BP. Golondrina points were attached on split-stem
hafts and may have served to bring down medium-sized animals such as deer, as well as functioning as butchering knives. Distribution is widespread throughout most of
Texas, and points have also been discovered in
Arkansas and
Mexico. The concentration of Golondrina specimens is highest across the
South Texas Plains, where the point is the most prevalent of Paleo-Indian types and defines a distinctive cultural pattern for the region. The Golondrina point is so named for its flared basal corners ("ears"), which resemble a swallow's (golondrina in Spanish) split tail. Classification of Golondrina can be difficult because of its similarity to other types, particularly the
Plainview point, to which it was originally thought to be related. (Full article...)
The Gevninge helmet fragment is the
dexter eyepiece of a helmet from the
Viking Age or end of the
Nordic Iron Age. It was found in 2000 during the
excavation of a Viking farmstead in
Gevninge, near
Lejre, Denmark. The fragment is moulded from bronze and
gilded, and consists of a stylised eyebrow with eyelashes above an oval opening. There are three holes at the top and bottom of the fragment to affix the eyepiece to a helmet. The fragment is significant as rare evidence of contemporaneous helmets, and also for its discovery in Gevninge, an outpost that is possibly connected to the
Anglo-Saxon epic Beowulf. It has been in the collection of the
Lejre Museum since its discovery, and has been exhibited internationally as part of a travelling exhibition on
Vikings.
The fragment is an ornate piece, but nothing else remains of the helmet; it might be the single remnant of a disintegrated helmet, or it might have been lost or discarded. It is one of two
Scandinavian eyepieces discovered alone, giving rise to the suggestion that it was intentionally deposited in an invocation of the one-eyed god
Odin. It would have been part of a decorated "crested helmet", the type of headgear that was common to England and Scandinavia from the sixth through eleventh centuries AD. These are particularly known from the examples found at
Vendel,
Valsgärde, and
Sutton Hoo; the
Tjele helmet fragment is the only other Danish example known.
Gevninge is three kilometres (1.9 mi) upriver from Lejre, a one-time centre of power believed to be the setting for
Heorot, the fabled mead hall to which the poetical hero
Beowulf journeys in search of the monster
Grendel. The settlement's location suggests that it functioned as an outpost through which anyone would have to pass when sailing to the capital, and in which trusted and loyal guardians would serve. This mirrors Beowulf's experience on his way to Heorot, for upon disembarking he is met with a mounted lookout whose job it is "to watch the waves for raiders, and danger to the Danish shore." Upon answering his challenge, Beowulf is escorted down the road to Heorot, much as an Iron Age visitor to Lejre might have been led along the road from Gevninge. The Gevninge helmet fragment, a military piece from a riverside outpost, therefore sheds light on the relationship between historical fact and legend. (Full article...)
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Scotland during the Roman Empire refers to the
protohistorical period during which the
Roman Empire interacted within the area of modern
Scotland. Despite sporadic attempts at conquest and government between the first and fourth centuries AD, most of modern Scotland, inhabited by the
Caledonians and the
Maeatae, was not incorporated into the Roman Empire with Roman control over the area fluctuating.
In the
Roman imperial period, the area of Caledonia lay north of the
River Forth, while the area now called England was known as Britannia, the name also given to the
Roman province roughly consisting of modern
England and Wales and which replaced the earlier
Ancient Greek designation as Albion.
Roman legions arrived in the territory of modern Scotland around AD 71, having conquered the
Celtic Britons of southern Britannia over the preceding three decades. Aiming to complete the
Roman conquest of Britannia, the
Roman armies under
Quintus Petillius Cerialis and
Gnaeus Julius Agricola campaigned against the Caledonians in the 70s and 80s. The Agricola, a biography of the
Roman governor of Britannia by his son-in-law
Tacitus mentions a Roman victory at "
Mons Graupius" which became the namesake of the
Grampian Mountains but whose identity has been questioned by modern scholarship. In 2023 a lost Roman road built by Julius Agricola was rediscovered in Drip close to Stirling: it has been described as "the most important road in Scottish history."
Agricola then seems to have repeated an earlier Greek circumnavigation of the island by
Pytheas and received submission from local tribes, establishing the Roman
limes of actual control first along the
Gask Ridge, and then withdrawing south of a line from the
Solway Firth to the
River Tyne, i.e. along the
Stanegate. This border was later fortified as
Hadrian's Wall. Several Roman commanders attempted to fully conquer lands north of this line, including a second-century expansion that was fortified as the
Antonine Wall.
The history of the period is complex and not well-documented. The
province of
Valentia, for instance, may have been the lands between the two Roman walls, or the territory around and south of Hadrian's Wall, or
Roman Wales. Romans held most of their Caledonian territory only a little over 40 years; they probably only held Scottish land for about 80 years. Some Scottish historians such as
Alistair Moffat maintain Roman influence was inconsequential. Despite grandiose claims made by
an eighteenth-century forged manuscript, it is now believed that the Romans at no point controlled even half of present-day Scotland and that Roman legions ceased to affect the area after around 211.
"
Scots" and "
Scotland" proper would not emerge as unified ideas
until the eighth century. In fact, the Roman Empire influenced every part of Scotland during the period: by the time of the
End of Roman rule in Britannia around 410, the various
Iron Age tribes native to the area had united as, or fallen under the control of, the
Picts, while the southern half of the country was overrun by tribes of
Romanized Britons. The
Scoti (
GaelicIrish raiders who would give Scotland its Anglicised name) had begun to settle along the west coast. All three groups may have been involved in the
Great Conspiracy that overran Roman Britannia in 367. The era saw the emergence of the earliest historical accounts of the natives. The most enduring legacies of Rome, however, were
Christianity and
literacy, both of which arrived indirectly via
Irish missionaries. (Full article...)
Archaeologists have established that long barrows were built by
pastoralist communities shortly after the introduction of
agriculture to Britain from continental Europe. Representing an architectural tradition of long barrow building that was widespread across Neolithic Europe, Chestnuts Long Barrow belongs to a localised regional style of barrows produced in the vicinity of the
River Medway. The long barrows built in this area are now known as the
Medway Megaliths. Chestnuts Long Barrow lies near to both
Addington Long Barrow and
Coldrum Long Barrow on the western side of the river. Two further surviving long barrows,
Kit's Coty House and
Little Kit's Coty House, as well as the destroyed
Smythe's Megalith and possible survivals as the
Coffin Stone and
White Horse Stone, are on the eastern side of the Medway.
The long barrow was built on land previously inhabited in the
Mesolithic period. It consisted of a sub-rectangular earthen
tumulus, estimated to have been 15 metres (50 feet) in length, with a chamber built from
sarsenmegaliths on its eastern end. Both
inhumed and
cremated human remains were placed within this chamber during the Neolithic period, representing at least nine or ten individuals. These remains were found alongside
pottery sherds, stone arrow heads, and a clay pendant. In the
4th centuryAD, a
Romano-British hut was erected next to the long barrow. In the 12th or 13th century, the chamber was dug into and heavily damaged, either by treasure hunters or
iconoclastic Christians. The mound gradually eroded and was completely gone by the twentieth century, leaving only the ruined stone chamber. The ruin attracted the interest of
antiquarians in the 18th and 19th centuries, while
archaeological excavation took place in 1957, followed by limited
reconstruction. The site is on privately owned land. (Full article...)
The
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), the official
Indian governmentagency for the preservation of ancient monuments, discovered Lothal in 1954. Excavation work in Lothal commenced on 13 February 1955 and continued till 19 May 1960. According to the ASI, arguably Lothal had the world's earliest known
dock, which connected the city to an ancient course of the
Sabarmati river on the
trade route. This trade route stretched between
Harappan cities in
Sindh (
Pakistan) and the peninsula of
Saurashtra where the surrounding
Kutch desert of today was a part of the
Arabian Sea. However, this interpretation has been challenged by other
archaeologists, who argue
Khufu's Red Sea harbour at
Wadi al-Jarf (
Egypt) is older, dating its construction to between 2580 to
2550 BCE and that Lothal was a comparatively small town, and that the "dock" was primarily an
irrigation tank.
Lothal was a vital and thriving trade centre in ancient times, with its trade of
beads,
gems and valuable ornaments reaching the far corners of West Asia and Africa. The techniques and tools they pioneered for bead-making and in
metallurgy have stood the test of time for over 4000 years.
Lothal is situated near the village of
Saragwala in the
Dholka Taluka of
Ahmedabad district. It is six kilometres south-east of the Lothal-
Bhurkhi railway station on the
Ahmedabad-
Bhavnagar railway line. It is also connected by all-weather roads to the cities of Ahmedabad (85 km/53 mi), Bhavnagar,
Rajkot and
Dholka. The nearest cities are Dholka and
Bagodara. Resuming excavation in 1961, archaeologists unearthed trenches sunk on the northern, eastern and western flanks of the mound, bringing to light the inlet channels and nullah ("ravine", or "gully") connecting the dock with the river. The findings consist of a
mound, a township, a
marketplace, and the 'dock'. Adjacent to the excavated areas stands the Archaeological Museum, where some of the most prominent collections of
Harappa-era antiquities in India are displayed.
Barkhale Camp is a
Neolithiccausewayed enclosure, an archaeological site on
Bignor Hill, on the
South Downs in
West Sussex, England. Causewayed enclosures were built in England from shortly before 3700 BC until at least 3500 BC; they are characterized by the full or partial enclosure of an area with ditches that are interrupted by gaps, or causeways. Their purpose is not known; they may have been settlements, meeting places, or ritual sites. The Barkhale Camp enclosure was first identified in 1929, by
John Ryle, and was surveyed the following year by
E. Cecil Curwen, who listed it as a possible Neolithic site in a 1930 paper which was the first attempt to list all the causewayed enclosures in England.
A small trench was dug in 1930 by Ryle, and a more extensive excavation was undertaken by
Veronica Seton-Williams between 1958 and 1961, which confirmed Curwen's survey and found a characteristically Neolithic assemblage of flints. Peter Leach conducted another excavation before the southern part of the site was cleared of trees in 1978, examining several mounds within the enclosure, and attempting to determine the line of the ditch and bank along the southern boundary. No material suitable for radiocarbon dating was recovered, which meant that dating the site was not possible with any precision, but Leach suggested that the site had been constructed in the earlier Neolithic, between 4000 BC and 3300 BC.
Alicia Dussán de Reichel (16 October 1920 – 17 May 2023) was a Colombian educator, who was one of the first students of ethnology in the country. For two decades, she was the only woman conducting archaeological and anthropological studies in the country. Her research focused on Colombia and the Caribbean and along with her husband, she founded the
University of the Andes' Department of Anthropology. She occupied Chair 15 of the
Colombian Academy of Exact, Physical and Natural Sciences until 2008 and was the only anthropologist to be a member during her tenure. In 2010, she was honored by the French Government with the designation of officer of the
Ordre des Arts et des Lettres. (Full article...)
Bodiam Castle (/ˈboʊdiəm/) is a 14th-century
moatedcastle near
Robertsbridge in East Sussex, England. It was built in 1385 by Sir
Edward Dalyngrigge, a former knight of
Edward III, with the permission of
Richard II, ostensibly to defend the area against French invasion during the
Hundred Years' War. Of
quadrangular plan, Bodiam Castle has no
keep, having its various chambers built around the outer defensive walls and inner courts. Its corners and entrance are marked by towers, and topped by
crenellations. Its structure, details and situation in an artificial watery landscape indicate that display was an important aspect of the castle's design as well as defence. It was the home of the
Dalyngrigge family and the centre of the
manor of
Bodiam.
Possession of Bodiam Castle passed through several generations of Dalyngrigges, until their line became extinct, when the castle passed by marriage to the Lewknor family. During the
Wars of the Roses, Sir Thomas Lewknor supported the
House of Lancaster, and when
Richard III of the
House of York became king in 1483, a force was despatched to
besiege Bodiam Castle. It is unrecorded whether the siege went ahead, but it is thought that Bodiam was surrendered without much resistance. The castle was confiscated, but returned to the Lewknors when
Henry VII of the House of Lancaster became king in 1485. Descendants of the Lewknors owned the castle until at least the 16th century.
By the start of the
English Civil War in 1641, Bodiam Castle was in the possession of
Lord Thanet. He supported the
Royalist cause, and sold the castle to help pay fines levied against him by Parliament. The castle was subsequently dismantled, and was left as a picturesque ruin until its purchase by
John Fuller in 1829. Under his auspices, the castle was partially restored before being sold to
George Cubitt, 1st Baron Ashcombe, and later to
Lord Curzon, both of whom undertook further restoration work. The castle is protected as a Grade I
listed building and
Scheduled Monument. It has been owned by
The National Trust since 1925, donated by Lord Curzon on his death, and is open to the public. (Full article...)
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The Shumen Fortress (
Bulgarian: Шуменска крепост, Shumenska krepost) is an archaeological site overlooking the city of
Shumen in north-eastern
Bulgaria.
It is an ancient fortress with historical links to a village nearby traced to early
Iron Age and later owned by the
Thracians in the 5th century BC. Then, from 2nd to 4th centuries AD, it was controlled by the
Romans who built towers and walls, and it was refurbished by the
Byzantines as their
garrison town. Shumen thrived in the Middle Ages as an important stronghold of the Bulgarian Empire. In 1444 the fort was destroyed by the
Ottomans after their victory in the
Battle of Varna over a Christian army under
Władysław III of Poland. The fortress remained deserted ever since.
Restoration works on the fortress commenced in 2012 under the project titled “Bulgaria Begins Here”, and was completed partially in 2015 with financial assistance provided under the
European Economic Area (EEA) and Norway Grants to the Shumen Municipality and the Shumen Regional Museum of History. (Full article...)
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Netley Abbey is a ruined
late medievalmonastery in the village of
Netley near
Southampton in
Hampshire, England. The abbey was founded in 1239 as a house for monks of the austere
Cistercian order. Despite royal patronage, Netley was never rich, produced no influential scholars nor churchmen, and its nearly 300-year history was quiet. The monks were best known to their neighbours for the generous hospitality they offered to travellers on land and sea.
In 1536, Netley Abbey was seized by
Henry VIII of England during the
Dissolution of the Monasteries and the buildings granted to
William Paulet, a wealthy
Tudor politician, who converted them into a mansion. The abbey was used as a
country house until the beginning of the eighteenth century, after which it was abandoned and partially demolished for building materials. Subsequently the ruins became a tourist attraction, and provided inspiration to poets and artists of the
Romantic movement. In the early twentieth century the site was given to the nation, and it is now a
Scheduled Ancient Monument, cared for by
English Heritage. The extensive remains consist of the church,
cloister buildings, abbot's house, and fragments of the post-Dissolution mansion. Netley Abbey is one of the best preserved medieval Cistercian monasteries in southern England. (Full article...)
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The Gozo Phoenician shipwreck is a seventh-century-BC
shipwreck of a
Phoenician trade ship lying at a depth of 110 meters (360 ft). The wreck was discovered in 2007 during a
sonar survey off the coast of
Malta's
Gozo island. Since 2014 it has been the object of a multidisciplinary project led by University of Malta along with many other national and international entities. The Gozo shipwreck archaeological excavation is the first maritime archaeological survey to explore shipwrecks with divers beyond a depth of 100 meters (330 ft). (Full article...)
The helmet was constructed by covering the outside of an iron framework with plates of horn and the inside with cloth or leather; the organic material has since decayed. It would have provided some protection against weapons, but was also ornate and may have been intended for ceremonial use. It was the first Anglo-Saxon helmet to be discovered, with five others found since:
Sutton Hoo (1939),
Coppergate (1982),
Wollaston (1997),
Shorwell (2004) and
Staffordshire (2009). The helmet features a unique combination of structural and technical attributes, but contemporaneous parallels exist for its individual characteristics. It is classified as one of the "crested helmets" used in Northern Europe from the 6th to 11th centuries AD.
The most striking feature of the helmet is the boar at its apex; this pagan symbol faces towards a
Christian cross on the
nasal in a display of
syncretism. This is representative of 7th-century England when Christian missionaries were slowly converting Anglo-Saxons away from traditional
Germanic paganism. The helmet seems to exhibit a stronger preference toward paganism, with a large boar and a small cross. The cross may have been added for talismanic effect, the help of any god being welcome on the battlefield. The boar atop the
crest was likewise associated with protection and suggests a time when boar-crested helmets may have been common, as do the helmet from Wollaston and the
Guilden Morden boar. The contemporary epic Beowulf mentions such helmets five times and speaks of the strength of men "when the hefted sword, its hammered edge and gleaming blade slathered in blood, razes the sturdy boar-ridge off a helmet". (Full article...)
Image 24
The Emesa helmet (also known as the Homs helmet) is a
Roman cavalry helmet from the early first century AD. It consists of an
iron head piece and face mask, the latter of which is covered in a sheet of
silver and presents the individualised portrait of a face, likely its owner. Decorations, some of which are
gilded, adorn the head piece. Confiscated by Syrian police soon after looters discovered it amidst a
complex of tombs in the modern-day city of
Homs in 1936, eventually the helmet was
restored thoroughly at the
British Museum, and is now in the collection of the
National Museum of Damascus. It has been exhibited internationally, although as of 2017, due to the
Syrian civil war, the more valuable items owned by the National Museum are hidden in underground storage.
Ornately designed yet highly functional, the helmet was probably intended for both parades and battle. Its delicate covering is too fragile to have been put to use during
cavalry tournaments, but the thick iron core would have defended against blows and arrows. Narrow slits for the eyes, with three small holes underneath to allow downward sight, sacrificed vision for protection; roughly cut notches below each eye suggest a hastily made modification of necessity.
The helmet was found in a tomb near a monument to a former
ruler of Emesa and, considering the lavishness of the silver and gold design, likely belonged to a member of the elite. As it is modelled after those helmets used in Roman tournaments, even if unlikely to have ever been worn in one, it may have been given by a Roman official to a
Syrian general or, more likely, manufactured in Syria after the Roman style. The
acanthusscroll ornamentation seen on the neck guard recalls that used on Syrian temples, suggesting that the helmet may have been made in the luxury workshops of
Antioch. (Full article...)
Image 25
Caral–Supe (also known as Caral and Norte Chico) was a complex
Pre-Columbian era society that included as many as thirty major population centers in what is now the Caral region of north-central coastal
Peru. The civilization flourished between the fourth and second millennia BC, with the formation of the first city generally dated to around 3500 BC, at
Huaricanga, in the
Fortaleza area. From 3100 BC onward that large-scale human settlement and communal construction become clearly apparent, which lasted until a period of decline around 1800 BC. Since the early 21st century, it has been recognized as the
oldest-known civilization in the Americas, and as one of the six sites where civilization separately originated in the ancient world.
This civilization flourished along three rivers, the
Fortaleza, the Pativilca, and the Supe. These river valleys each have large clusters of sites. Farther south, there are several associated sites along the Huaura River. The alternative name, Caral–Supe, is derived from the city of
Caral in the Supe Valley, a large and well-studied Caral–Supe site.
In
archaeological nomenclature, Caral–Supe is a pre-ceramic culture of the pre-Columbian
Late Archaic; it
completely lackedceramics and no evidence of visual art has survived. The most impressive achievement of the civilization was its monumental architecture, including large
earthworkplatform mounds and sunken circular
plazas. Archaeological evidence suggests use of textile technology and, possibly, the worship of common deity symbols, both of which recur in pre-Columbian
Andean cultures. Sophisticated government is presumed to have been required to manage the ancient
Caral. Questions remain over its organization, particularly the influence of food resources on politics.
Archaeologists have been aware of ancient sites in the area since at least the 1940s; early work occurred at
Aspero on the coast, a site identified as early as 1905, and later at Caral, farther inland. In the late 1990s, Peruvian archaeologists, led by
Ruth Shady, provided the first extensive documentation of the civilization with work at Caral. A 2001 paper in Science, providing a survey of the Caral research, and a 2004 article in Nature, describing fieldwork and
radiocarbon dating across a wider area, revealed Caral–Supe's full significance and led to widespread interest. (Full article...)
Spyridon Marinatos (
Greek: Σπυρίδων Μαρινάτος; 17 November [
O.S. 4 November] 1901 – 1 October 1974) was a Greek
archaeologist who specialised in the
Bronze AgeMinoan and
Mycenaean civilizations. He is best known for the excavation of the Minoan site of
Akrotiri on
Santorini, which he conducted between 1967 and 1974. A recipient of several honours in Greece and abroad, he was considered one of the most important Greek archaeologists of his day.
Marinatos served three times as head of the Greek Archaeological Service, firstly between 1937 and 1939, secondly between 1955 and 1958, and finally under the
military junta which ruled Greece between 1967 and 1974. In the late 1930s, he was close to
the quasi-fascist dictatorship of
Ioannis Metaxas, under whom he initiated legislation to restrict the roles of women in Greek archaeology, and he was later an enthusiastic supporter of the junta. His leadership of the Archaeological Service has been criticised for its
cronyism and for promoting the pursuit of grand discoveries at the expense of good scholarship. Marinatos died while excavating at Akrotiri in 1974, and is buried at the site. (Full article...)
The method was developed in the late 1940s at the
University of Chicago by
Willard Libby. It is based on the fact that radiocarbon (14 C) is constantly being created in the
Earth's atmosphere by the interaction of
cosmic rays with atmospheric
nitrogen. The resulting 14 C combines with atmospheric
oxygen to form radioactive
carbon dioxide, which is incorporated into plants by
photosynthesis; animals then acquire 14 C by eating the plants. When the animal or plant dies, it stops exchanging carbon with its environment, and thereafter the amount of 14 C it contains begins to decrease as the 14 C undergoes
radioactive decay. Measuring the proportion of 14 C in a sample from a dead plant or animal, such as a piece of wood or a fragment of bone, provides information that can be used to calculate when the animal or plant died. The older a sample is, the less 14 C there is to be detected, and because the
half-life of 14 C (the period of time after which half of a given sample will have decayed) is about 5,730 years, the oldest dates that can be reliably measured by this process date to approximately 50,000 years ago (in this interval about 99.8% of the 14 C will have decayed), although special preparation methods occasionally make an accurate analysis of older samples possible. In 1960, Libby received the
Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work.
Research has been ongoing since the 1960s to determine what the proportion of 14 C in the atmosphere has been over the past 50,000 years. The resulting data, in the form of a
calibration curve, is now used to convert a given measurement of radiocarbon in a sample into an estimate of the sample's calendar age. Other corrections must be made to account for the proportion of 14 C in different types of organisms (fractionation), and the varying levels of 14 C throughout the
biosphere (reservoir effects). Additional complications come from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, and from the above-ground nuclear tests performed in the 1950s and 1960s.
Because the time it takes to convert biological materials to
fossil fuels is substantially longer than the time it takes for its 14 C to decay below detectable levels, fossil fuels contain almost no 14 C. As a result, beginning in the late 19th century, there was a noticeable drop in the proportion of 14 C in the atmosphere as the carbon dioxide generated from burning fossil fuels began to accumulate. Conversely,
nuclear testing increased the amount of 14 C in the atmosphere, which reached a maximum in about 1965 of almost double the amount present in the atmosphere prior to nuclear testing.
Measurement of radiocarbon was originally done with beta-counting devices, which counted the amount of
beta radiation emitted by decaying 14 C atoms in a sample. More recently,
accelerator mass spectrometry has become the method of choice; it counts all the 14 C atoms in the sample and not just the few that happen to decay during the measurements; it can therefore be used with much smaller samples (as small as individual plant seeds), and gives results much more quickly. The development of radiocarbon dating has had a profound impact on
archaeology. In addition to permitting more accurate dating within archaeological sites than previous methods, it allows comparison of dates of events across great distances. Histories of archaeology often refer to its impact as the "radiocarbon revolution". Radiocarbon dating has allowed key transitions in prehistory to be dated, such as the end of the
last ice age, and the beginning of the
Neolithic and
Bronze Age in different regions. (Full article...)
The cross is thought to date from the 10th century, and exhibits distinctive
Hiberno-Scottish mission influences, in common with several other monuments in the area. Tradition and
folk etymology suggest that the cross marked the burial site of
Camus, leader of the Norse army purportedly defeated by King
Malcolm II at the apocryphal
Battle of Barry. The name of the stone is likely to derive from the extinct
village of Camuston, which has a
Celtic toponymy. (Full article...)
Archaeologists have established that the monument was built by
pastoralist communities shortly after the introduction of agriculture to Britain from continental Europe. Although representing part of an architectural tradition of
long barrow building that was widespread across Neolithic Europe, Julliberrie's Grave belongs to a localised regional variant of barrows produced in the vicinity of the
River Stour. Of these, it lies on the eastern side of the river, alongside the
Shrub's Wood Long Barrow, while the third known example in this barrow group,
Jacket's Field Long Barrow, is located on the western side.
Julliberrie's Grave is 44 metres (144 ft) long, 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) high, and 15 metres (49 ft) at its widest. It was originally larger, with the northern end having been destroyed. Unlike many other long barrows, no evidence for any Early Neolithic human remains have been found at the site; it is possible that its builders never placed human remains within it, or that such burials were included in the barrow's (since lost) northern end. A broken polished stone axe was included in the centre of the monument, which archaeologists believe was likely placed there as part of a
ritual act of deposition. A rectangular pit was dug into the western side of the barrow shortly after its completion, likely containing a ritual deposit of organic material, before being refilled.
In the
Iron Age, a hearth was established in the ditch circling the barrow; in the
Romano-British period, human remains and a coin hoard were buried around its perimeter. Ensuing millennia witnessed local
folklore grow up around the site, associating it with the burial of either a giant or an army and their horses. The ruin attracted the interest of
antiquarians in the 17th century, although was heavily damaged by chalk quarrying around the 18th. During the 18th and 19th century, antiquarians dug into the barrow at least twice, while cautious
archaeological excavation took place in the 1930s. A
Scheduled Ancient Monument, it is accessible to visitors all year around. (Full article...)
Merrifield opens The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic by discussing how archaeologists have understood magic and ritual practices in past societies, opining that on the whole it had been a neglected area of study. Looking at the archaeological evidence for ritual activity in the
pre-Roman Iron Age and the
Roman Iron Age of Britain, he discusses
animal and
human sacrifice, as well as the offering of
votive deposits in rivers and other bodies of water. He moves on to explore the rituals surrounding death and burial, suggesting areas where this ritual activity is visible in the burial record of multiple societies. Merrifield goes on to discuss the archaeological evidence for ritual practices in Christian Europe, highlighting areas of ritual continuance from earlier pagan periods, in particular the deposition of metal goods in water. Looking at the evidence for foundation deposits in European buildings that likely had
magico-religious purposes, he then looks at several examples of written charms and spells which have survived in the archaeological record.
Upon publication, The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic received predominantly positive reviews in academic peer-reviewed journals such as Folklore and The Antiquaries Journal. In the ensuing years, the book has been widely cited by scholars as an influential and pioneering text in the study of the archaeology of ritual and magic. (Full article...)
Image 6
The Lokrume helmet fragment is a decorated eyebrow piece from a
Viking Age helmet. It is made of iron, the surface of which is covered with silver and features an interlace pattern in
niello or wire. Discovered in
Lokrume, a small settlement on the Swedish island of
Gotland, the fragment was first described in print in 1907 and is in the collection of the
Gotland Museum.
The fragment is dated to around the tenth century AD, on the basis of its interlace pattern; similar designs appear on tenth-century swords. It is all that remains of one of five Viking helmets to survive in any condition; the others are the
Gjermundbu helmet from Norway, the
Yarm helmet from England, the
Tjele helmet fragment from Denmark, and a fragment from
Kyiv, Ukraine. These are all examples of the "crested helmets" that entered use in Europe around the sixth century, and derive from the earlier
Anglo-Saxon and
Vendel Period helmets. (Full article...)
Image 7
Peter Charles van GeersdaeleOBE (3 July 1933 – 20 July 2018) was an English conservator best known for his work on the
Sutton Hooship-burial. Among other work he oversaw the creation of a plaster cast of the ship impression, from which a
fibreglass replica of the ship was formed. He later helped mould an impression of the
Graveney boat, in addition to other excavation and restoration work.
Van Geersdaele studied at Hammersmith Technical College from 1946 to 1949, after which he engaged in moulding and casting at the
Victoria and Albert Museum until 1951. From 1954 to around 1976 he was a conservator at the
British Museum, rising to the position of senior conservation officer in the British and Medieval department. Following that he became an assistant chief of archaeology in the conservation division of the
National Historic Sites of Canada for
Parks Canada, and then the deputy head of the conservation department at the
National Maritime Museum in London. He retired in 1993, and during
that year's Birthday Honours was appointed an Officer of the
Order of the British Empire, in recognition of his services to museums. (Full article...)
Image 8
The Qian Mausoleum (
Chinese: 乾陵;
pinyin: Qiánlíng) is a
Tang dynasty (618–907) tomb site located in
Qian County,
Shaanxi province, China, and is 85 km (53 mi) northwest from
Xi'an. Built in 684 (with additional construction until 706), the tombs of the mausoleum complex house the remains of various members of the
House of Li, the imperial family of the Tang dynasty. This includes
Emperor Gaozong (
r. 649–83), as well as his wife,
Wu Zetian, who assumed the Tang throne and became China's only reigning female emperor from 690 to 705. The mausoleum is renowned for its many Tang dynasty stone statues located above ground and the mural paintings adorning the subterranean walls of the tombs. Besides the main
tumulus mound and underground tomb of Emperor Gaozong and Wu Zetian, there are 17 smaller attendant tombs, or peizang mu. Presently, only five of these attendant tombs have been excavated by archaeologists, three belonging to members of the imperial family, one to a
chancellor, and the other to a general of the left guard. The Shaanxi Administration of Cultural Heritage declared in 2012 that no further excavations would take place for at least 50 years. (Full article...)
Probably constructed in the
4th millennium BCE, during
Britain's Early Neolithic period, it was discovered in 1822, at which point it was dismantled. Built out of earth and at least five local
sarsenmegaliths, the long barrow consisted of a roughly rectangular earthen
tumulus with a stone chamber in its eastern end. Human remains were deposited into this chamber.
Archaeologists have established that the monument was built by
pastoralist communities shortly after the introduction of
agriculture to Britain from continental Europe. Although representing part of an architectural tradition of long barrow building widespread across Neolithic Europe, Smythe's Megalith belonged to a localised regional variant produced in the vicinity of the
River Medway, now known as the
Medway Megaliths.
The site may have been ransacked during the Middle Ages, as other Medway Megaliths were. By the early 19th century it was buried beneath soil, largely due to millennia of
hillwash coming down from the adjacent
Blue Bell Hill. In 1822, it was discovered by farm labourers ploughing the land; the local
antiquarians Clement Smythe and Thomas Charles were called in to examine it. Shortly after, the labourers pulled away the stones and dispersed most of the human remains, destroying the monument. Smythe and Charles produced, but did not publish, reports on their findings, and these have been discussed by archaeologists since the mid-20th century. (Full article...)
Archaeologists have established that the monument was built by a
pastoralist community shortly after the introduction of agriculture to Britain from continental Europe. Although representing part of an architectural tradition of long-barrow building that was widespread across Neolithic Europe, Jacket's Field Long Barrow belongs to a localised regional variant of barrows produced in the vicinity of the
River Stour. Of these, it lies on the western side of the river, while
Julliberrie's Grave and
Shrub's Wood Long Barrow are found on the eastern side. The site was discovered in 1970, at which point it was concealed in dense woodland, although has yet to undergo thorough archaeological investigation. (Full article...)
The
tetrastyleprostyle building has two doors that connect the
pronaos to a square
cella. To the back of the temple lie the remains of the
adyton where images of the deity once stood. The ancient temple functioned as an
aedes, the dwelling place of the
deity. The temple of Bziza was converted into a
church and underwent architectural modification during two phases of Christianization; in the Early
Byzantine period and later in the
Middle Ages. The church, colloquially known until modern times as the Lady of the Pillars, fell into disrepair. Despite the church's condition, Christian devotion was still maintained in the nineteenth century in one of the temple's
niches. The temple of Bziza is featured on multiple stamps issued by the Lebanese state. (Full article...)
The term Harappan is sometimes applied to the Indus civilisation after its
type siteHarappa, the first to be excavated early in the 20th century in what was then the
Punjab province of
British India and is now
Punjab, Pakistan. The discovery of Harappa and soon afterwards
Mohenjo-daro was the culmination of work that had begun after the founding of the
Archaeological Survey of India in the
British Raj in 1861. There were earlier and later cultures called Early Harappan and Late Harappan in the same area. The early Harappan cultures were populated from
Neolithic cultures, the earliest and best-known of which is named after
Mehrgarh, in
Balochistan, Pakistan. Harappan civilisation is sometimes called Mature Harappan to distinguish it from the earlier cultures.
The cities of the ancient Indus were noted for their
urban planning,
baked brick houses, elaborate
drainage systems,
water supply systems, clusters of large non-residential buildings, and techniques of handicraft and
metallurgy.
Mohenjo-daro and
Harappa very likely grew to contain between 30,000 and 60,000 individuals, and the civilisation may have contained between one and five million individuals during its florescence. A gradual
drying of the region during the 3rd millennium BCE may have been the initial stimulus for its urbanisation. Eventually it also reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise and to disperse its population to the east.
Although over a thousand Mature Harappan sites have been reported and nearly a hundred excavated, there are five major urban centres:
Mohenjo-daro in the lower Indus Valley (declared a
UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980 as "Archaeological Ruins at Moenjodaro"), Harappa in the western
Punjab region,
Ganeriwala in the
Cholistan Desert,
Dholavira in western
Gujarat (declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2021 as "Dholavira: A Harappan City"), and
Rakhigarhi in
Haryana. The
Harappan language is not directly attested, and its affiliations are uncertain, as the
Indus script has remained undeciphered. A relationship with the
Dravidian or
Elamo-Dravidian language family is favoured by a section of scholars. (Full article...)
Image 14
Quiriguá (Spanish pronunciation:[kiɾiˈɣwa]) is an ancient
Mayaarchaeological site in the
department of
Izabal in south-eastern
Guatemala. It is a medium-sized site covering approximately 3 square kilometres (1.2 sq mi) along the lower
Motagua River, with the ceremonial center about 1 km (0.6 mi) from the north bank. During the
Maya Classic Period (AD 200–900), Quiriguá was situated at the juncture of several important
trade routes. The site was occupied by 200, construction on the
acropolis had begun by about 550, and an explosion of grander construction started in the 8th century. All construction had halted by about 850, except for a brief period of reoccupation in the Early
Postclassic (c. 900 – c. 1200). Quiriguá shares its architectural and sculptural styles with the nearby Classic Period city of
Copán, with whose history it is closely entwined.
Quiriguá's rapid expansion in the 8th century was tied to king
K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat's military victory over Copán in 738. When the greatest king of Copán,
Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil or "18-Rabbit", was defeated, he was captured and then sacrificed in the Great Plaza at Quiriguá. Before this, Quiriguá had been a
vassal state of Copán, but it maintained its independence afterwards. The ceremonial
architecture at Quiriguá is quite modest, but the site's importance lies in its wealth of sculpture, including the tallest stone
monumental sculpture ever erected in the
New World. Because of its historical importance, the site of Quiriguá was inscribed on the
UNESCOWorld Heritage List in 1981. (Full article...)
Probably constructed in the
4th millennium BCE, during
Britain's Early Neolithic period, it was discovered in 1822, at which point it was dismantled. Built out of earth and at least five local
sarsenmegaliths, the long barrow consisted of a roughly rectangular earthen
tumulus with a stone chamber in its eastern end. Human remains were deposited into this chamber.
Archaeologists have established that the monument was built by
pastoralist communities shortly after the introduction of
agriculture to Britain from continental Europe. Although representing part of an architectural tradition of long barrow building widespread across Neolithic Europe, Smythe's Megalith belonged to a localised regional variant produced in the vicinity of the
River Medway, now known as the
Medway Megaliths.
The site may have been ransacked during the Middle Ages, as other Medway Megaliths were. By the early 19th century it was buried beneath soil, largely due to millennia of
hillwash coming down from the adjacent
Blue Bell Hill. In 1822, it was discovered by farm labourers ploughing the land; the local
antiquarians Clement Smythe and Thomas Charles were called in to examine it. Shortly after, the labourers pulled away the stones and dispersed most of the human remains, destroying the monument. Smythe and Charles produced, but did not publish, reports on their findings, and these have been discussed by archaeologists since the mid-20th century. (Full article...)
Born in
Sydney to a middle-class English migrant family, Childe studied
classics at the
University of Sydney before moving to England to study
classical archaeology at the
University of Oxford. There, he embraced the
socialist movement and campaigned against the
First World War, viewing it as a conflict waged by competing
imperialists to the detriment of Europe's working class. Returning to Australia in 1917, he was prevented from working in academia because of his socialist activism. Instead, he worked for the
Labor Party as the private secretary of the politician
John Storey. Growing critical of Labor, he wrote an analysis of their policies and joined the radical labour organisation
Industrial Workers of the World. Emigrating to London in 1921, he became librarian of the
Royal Anthropological Institute and journeyed across Europe to pursue his research into the continent's prehistory, publishing his findings in academic papers and books. In doing so, he introduced the continental European concept of an
archaeological culture—the idea that a recurring
assemblage of artefacts demarcates a distinct cultural group—to the British archaeological community.
From 1927 to 1946 he worked as the
Abercromby Professor of Archaeology at the University of Edinburgh, and then from 1947 to 1957 as the director of the Institute of Archaeology, London. During this period he oversaw the
excavation of archaeological sites in Scotland and Northern Ireland, focusing on the society of
NeolithicOrkney by excavating the settlement of
Skara Brae and the
chambered tombs of
Maeshowe and
Quoyness. In these decades he published prolifically, producing excavation reports, journal articles, and books. With
Stuart Piggott and
Grahame Clark he co-founded
The Prehistoric Society in 1934, becoming its first president. Remaining a committed socialist, he embraced
Marxism, and—rejecting culture-historical approaches—used Marxist ideas such as
historical materialism as an interpretative framework for archaeological data. He became a sympathiser with the
Soviet Union and visited the country on several occasions, although he grew sceptical of Soviet foreign policy following the
Hungarian Revolution of 1956. His beliefs resulted in him being legally barred from entering the United States, despite receiving repeated invitations to lecture there. Upon retirement, he returned to Australia's
Blue Mountains, where he committed suicide.
One of the best-known and most widely cited archaeologists of the twentieth century, Childe became known as the "great synthesizer" for his work integrating regional research with a broader picture of Near Eastern and European prehistory. He was also renowned for his emphasis on the role of revolutionary technological and economic developments in human society, such as the
Neolithic Revolution and the
Urban Revolution, reflecting the influence of Marxist ideas concerning societal development. Although many of his interpretations have since been discredited, he remains widely respected among archaeologists. (Full article...)
Image 17
Bath and North East Somerset (commonly referred to as BANES or B&NES) is a
unitary authority created on 1 April 1996, following the abolition of the
County of Avon, which had existed since 1974. Part of the
ceremonial county of
Somerset, Bath and North East Somerset occupies an area of 220 square miles (570 km2), two-thirds of which is
green belt. It stretches from the outskirts of
Bristol, south into the
Mendip Hills and east to the southern
Cotswold Hills and
Wiltshire border. The city of
Bath is the principal settlement in the district, but BANES also covers
Keynsham,
Midsomer Norton,
Radstock and the
Chew Valley. The area has a population of 170,000, about half of whom live in Bath, making it 12 times more densely populated than the rest of the area.
A
scheduled monument is a nationally important archaeological site or monument which is given legal protection by being placed on a list (or "schedule") by the
Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport;
Historic England takes the leading role in identifying such sites. The legislation governing this is the
Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979. The term "monument" can apply to the whole range of archaeological sites, and they are not always visible above ground. Such sites have to have been deliberately constructed by human activity. They range from
prehistoric standing stones and burial sites, through
Roman remains and medieval structures such as castles and monasteries, to later structures such as industrial sites and buildings constructed for the World Wars or the
Cold War.
There are 58 scheduled monuments in Bath and North East Somerset. Some of the oldest are
Neolithic, including the
Stanton Drew stone circles and several
tumuli. The Great Circle at Stanton Drew is one of the largest Neolithic monuments ever built, and the second largest stone circle in Britain (after
Avebury). The date of construction is not known but is thought to be between 3000 and 2000
BCE, which places it in the Late Neolithic to Early
Bronze Age. There are also several
Iron Agehillforts such as
Maes Knoll, which was later incorporated into the medieval
Wansdyke defensive earthwork, several sections of which are included in this list. The
Romano-British period is represented with several sites, most notably the
Roman Baths and
city walls in
Bath. More recent sites include several bridges which date from the
Middle Ages to the 18th-century
Palladian bridge in
Prior Park Landscape Garden.
Dundas Aqueduct, built in 1805 to carry the
Kennet and Avon Canal, is the most recent site in the list. The monuments are listed below using the names given in the English Heritage data sheets. (Full article...)
Image 18
Caral–Supe (also known as Caral and Norte Chico) was a complex
Pre-Columbian era society that included as many as thirty major population centers in what is now the Caral region of north-central coastal
Peru. The civilization flourished between the fourth and second millennia BC, with the formation of the first city generally dated to around 3500 BC, at
Huaricanga, in the
Fortaleza area. From 3100 BC onward that large-scale human settlement and communal construction become clearly apparent, which lasted until a period of decline around 1800 BC. Since the early 21st century, it has been recognized as the
oldest-known civilization in the Americas, and as one of the six sites where civilization separately originated in the ancient world.
This civilization flourished along three rivers, the
Fortaleza, the Pativilca, and the Supe. These river valleys each have large clusters of sites. Farther south, there are several associated sites along the Huaura River. The alternative name, Caral–Supe, is derived from the city of
Caral in the Supe Valley, a large and well-studied Caral–Supe site.
In
archaeological nomenclature, Caral–Supe is a pre-ceramic culture of the pre-Columbian
Late Archaic; it
completely lackedceramics and no evidence of visual art has survived. The most impressive achievement of the civilization was its monumental architecture, including large
earthworkplatform mounds and sunken circular
plazas. Archaeological evidence suggests use of textile technology and, possibly, the worship of common deity symbols, both of which recur in pre-Columbian
Andean cultures. Sophisticated government is presumed to have been required to manage the ancient
Caral. Questions remain over its organization, particularly the influence of food resources on politics.
Archaeologists have been aware of ancient sites in the area since at least the 1940s; early work occurred at
Aspero on the coast, a site identified as early as 1905, and later at Caral, farther inland. In the late 1990s, Peruvian archaeologists, led by
Ruth Shady, provided the first extensive documentation of the civilization with work at Caral. A 2001 paper in Science, providing a survey of the Caral research, and a 2004 article in Nature, describing fieldwork and
radiocarbon dating across a wider area, revealed Caral–Supe's full significance and led to widespread interest. (Full article...)
A
trapezoidalcairn of rubble – the upper part of the cromlech and its earth covering now removed – about 72 feet (22 m) long by 43 feet (13 m) (at its widest), is
revetted by a low
dry-stone wall. A bell-shaped, south-facing
forecourt, formed by the wall, leads to a central passageway lined with
limestone slabs set on end. Human remains had been placed in the two pairs of stone chambers that lead from the passageway. Corpses may have been placed in nearby caves until they decomposed, when the bones were moved to the tomb.
The cromlech was discovered in 1869 by workmen digging for road stone. An
excavation later that year revealed human bones (now known to have belonged to at least 40 people), animal remains, and Neolithic pottery. Samples from the site show the tomb to have been in use for between 300 and 800 years.
North-West European lifestyles changed around 6000 BP, from the nomadic lives of the
hunter-gatherer, to a settled life of
agricultural farming: the
Neolithic Revolution. However, analysis of the human remains found at Parc Cwm long cairn show the people interred in the cromlech continued to be either hunter-gatherers or
herders, rather than agricultural farmers.
Parc Cwm long cairn lies in a former
medieval deer park, established in the 1220s
CE by the
Marcher Lord of
Gower as Parc le Breos – an enclosed area of about 2,000 acres (810 ha), now mainly farmland. The cromlech is on the floor of a dry narrow limestone
gorge containing about 500 acres (2.0 km2) of woodland. Free pedestrian access is via an
asphalt track leading from the park's entrance, which has free parking for 12–15 cars about 250 yards (230 m) from the site. Parc Cwm long cairn is maintained by Cadw, the
Welsh Government's historic environment division. (Full article...)
Ebla (
Sumerian: 𒌈𒆷eb₂-la,
Arabic: إبلا, modern: تل مرديخ, Tell Mardikh) was one of the earliest kingdoms in
Syria. Its remains constitute a
tell located about 55 km (34 mi) southwest of
Aleppo near the village of
Mardikh. Ebla was an important center throughout the 3rd millennium BC and in the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. Its discovery proved the
Levant was a center of ancient, centralized civilization equal to
Egypt and
Mesopotamia and ruled out the view that the latter two were the only important centers in the
Near East during the Early
Bronze Age. The first Eblaite kingdom has been described as the first recorded world power.
Starting as a small settlement in the Early Bronze Age (
c. 3500BC), Ebla developed into a trading empire and later into an expansionist power that imposed its hegemony over much of northern and eastern Syria. Ebla was destroyed during the 23rd century BC. It was then rebuilt and was mentioned in the records of the
Third Dynasty of Ur. The second Ebla was a continuation of the first, ruled by a new royal dynasty. It was destroyed at the end of the 3rd millennium BC, which paved the way for the
Amorite tribes to settle in the city, forming the third Ebla. The third kingdom also flourished as a trade center; it became a subject and an ally of
Yamhad (modern-day Aleppo) until its final destruction by the
Hittite king Mursili I in
c. 1600BC.
Ebla maintained its prosperity through a vast trading network. Artifacts from
Sumer,
Cyprus,
Egypt and as far as
Afghanistan were recovered from the city's palaces. The kingdom had its own language,
Eblaite, and the political organization of Ebla had features different from the Sumerian model. Women enjoyed a special status, and the queen had major influence in the state and religious affairs. The pantheon of gods was mainly north Semitic and included deities exclusive to Ebla. The city was excavated from 1964 and became famous for the
Ebla tablets, an archive of about 20,000
cuneiform tablets found there, dated to around 2350 BC. Written in both
Sumerian and Eblaite and using the
cuneiform, the archive has allowed a better understanding of the Sumerian language and provided important information over the political organization and social customs of the mid-3rd millennium BC's Levant. (Full article...)
The
Bronze Age settlers left evidence of several small oval houses with thick stone walls and various artefacts including a decorated bone object. The
Iron Age ruins include several different types of structures, including a
broch and a defensive wall around the site. The
Pictish period provides various works of art including a painted pebble and a
symbol stone. The
Viking Age ruins make up the largest such site visible anywhere in Britain and include a
longhouse; excavations provided numerous tools and a detailed insight into life in Shetland at this time. The most visible structures on the site are the walls of the Scottish period fortified manor house, which inspired the name "Jarlshof" that first appears in an 1821 novel by
Walter Scott.
Scotland during the Roman Empire refers to the
protohistorical period during which the
Roman Empire interacted within the area of modern
Scotland. Despite sporadic attempts at conquest and government between the first and fourth centuries AD, most of modern Scotland, inhabited by the
Caledonians and the
Maeatae, was not incorporated into the Roman Empire with Roman control over the area fluctuating.
In the
Roman imperial period, the area of Caledonia lay north of the
River Forth, while the area now called England was known as Britannia, the name also given to the
Roman province roughly consisting of modern
England and Wales and which replaced the earlier
Ancient Greek designation as Albion.
Roman legions arrived in the territory of modern Scotland around AD 71, having conquered the
Celtic Britons of southern Britannia over the preceding three decades. Aiming to complete the
Roman conquest of Britannia, the
Roman armies under
Quintus Petillius Cerialis and
Gnaeus Julius Agricola campaigned against the Caledonians in the 70s and 80s. The Agricola, a biography of the
Roman governor of Britannia by his son-in-law
Tacitus mentions a Roman victory at "
Mons Graupius" which became the namesake of the
Grampian Mountains but whose identity has been questioned by modern scholarship. In 2023 a lost Roman road built by Julius Agricola was rediscovered in Drip close to Stirling: it has been described as "the most important road in Scottish history."
Agricola then seems to have repeated an earlier Greek circumnavigation of the island by
Pytheas and received submission from local tribes, establishing the Roman
limes of actual control first along the
Gask Ridge, and then withdrawing south of a line from the
Solway Firth to the
River Tyne, i.e. along the
Stanegate. This border was later fortified as
Hadrian's Wall. Several Roman commanders attempted to fully conquer lands north of this line, including a second-century expansion that was fortified as the
Antonine Wall.
The history of the period is complex and not well-documented. The
province of
Valentia, for instance, may have been the lands between the two Roman walls, or the territory around and south of Hadrian's Wall, or
Roman Wales. Romans held most of their Caledonian territory only a little over 40 years; they probably only held Scottish land for about 80 years. Some Scottish historians such as
Alistair Moffat maintain Roman influence was inconsequential. Despite grandiose claims made by
an eighteenth-century forged manuscript, it is now believed that the Romans at no point controlled even half of present-day Scotland and that Roman legions ceased to affect the area after around 211.
"
Scots" and "
Scotland" proper would not emerge as unified ideas
until the eighth century. In fact, the Roman Empire influenced every part of Scotland during the period: by the time of the
End of Roman rule in Britannia around 410, the various
Iron Age tribes native to the area had united as, or fallen under the control of, the
Picts, while the southern half of the country was overrun by tribes of
Romanized Britons. The
Scoti (
GaelicIrish raiders who would give Scotland its Anglicised name) had begun to settle along the west coast. All three groups may have been involved in the
Great Conspiracy that overran Roman Britannia in 367. The era saw the emergence of the earliest historical accounts of the natives. The most enduring legacies of Rome, however, were
Christianity and
literacy, both of which arrived indirectly via
Irish missionaries. (Full article...)
Born to a wealthy middle-class English family in
Calcutta, British India, Murray divided her youth between India, Britain, and Germany, training as both a nurse and a social worker. Moving to London, in 1894 she began studying Egyptology at UCL, developing a friendship with department head
Flinders Petrie, who encouraged her early academic publications and appointed her junior lecturer in 1898. In 1902–03, she took part in Petrie's
excavations at
Abydos, Egypt, there discovering the
Osireion temple and the following season investigated the
Saqqara cemetery, both of which established her reputation in Egyptology. Supplementing her UCL wage by giving public classes and lectures at the
British Museum and
Manchester Museum, it was at the latter in 1908 that she led the unwrapping of Khnum-nakht, one of the
mummies recovered from the
Tomb of two Brothers – the first time that a woman had publicly unwrapped a mummy. Recognising that British
Egyptomania reflected the existence of a widespread public interest in
Ancient Egypt, Murray wrote several books on Egyptology targeted at a general audience.
Murray also became closely involved in the
first-wave feminist movement, joining the
Women's Social and Political Union and devoting much time to improving women's status at UCL. Unable to return to Egypt due to the
First World War, she focused her research on the
witch-cult hypothesis, the theory that the
witch trials of Early Modern Christendom were an attempt to extinguish a surviving pre-Christian,
pagan religion devoted to a
Horned God. Although later academically discredited, the theory gained widespread attention and proved a significant influence on the emerging
new religious movement of
Wicca. From 1921 to 1931, she undertook excavations of prehistoric sites on
Malta and
Menorca and developed her interest in folkloristics. Awarded an honorary doctorate in 1927, she was appointed assistant professor in 1928 and retired from UCL in 1935. That year she visited Palestine to aid Petrie's excavation of
Tall al-Ajjul and in 1937 she led a small excavation at
Petra in Jordan. Taking on the presidency of the Folklore Society in later life, she lectured at such institutions as the
University of Cambridge and
City Literary Institute, and continued to publish in an independent capacity until her death.
Murray's work in Egyptology and archaeology was widely acclaimed and earned her the nickname of "The Grand Old Woman of Egyptology", although after her death many of her contributions to the field were overshadowed by those of Petrie. Conversely, Murray's work in folkloristics and the history of witchcraft has been academically discredited and her methods in these areas heavily criticised. The influence of her witch-cult theory in both religion and literature has been examined by various scholars, and she herself has been dubbed the "Grandmother of Wicca". (Full article...)
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Caludon Castle is a
Scheduled Ancient Monument and
Grade I listed building in
Coventry, in the
West Midlands of England. A second
moated site 190 metres (620 ft) to the south is a Scheduled Ancient Monument in its own right. The castle is now a ruin, and all that remains is a large fragment of sandstone wall. What remains of the estate is now an urban park, owned and run by
Coventry City Council, but much of it was sold and developed into housing estates in the early 20th century.
The site has been occupied since at least the 11th century
CE. The original building, pre-dating the
Norman conquest of England, was a large house, which became the property of the
Earl of Chester after the conquest. The house was given to the
Segrave family in the 13th century, and was first described as a
manor in 1239. A
licence for crenellation was granted in 1305, at which point the house is thought to have been re-styled as a castle. Another licence was received in 1354, and the property was again rebuilt. In the 14th century, it came into the possession of
Thomas de Mowbray, 1st Duke of Norfolk, who was banished in 1398, after which the castle fell into disrepair. Mowbray's son,
John, inherited the building, and it remained in the Mowbray family until 1481, when it passed to
William de Berkeley, 1st Marquess of Berkeley. It was rebuilt again circa 1580, this time as a mansion, having lain derelict since Mowbray's banishment. The castle was all but destroyed in 1662, and remained in ruins until 1800, when the remains were used in the construction of a farmhouse on the site.
The estate was divided up and much of it sold in 1815, and remained in the hands of multiple private owners until most of the land was purchased by the Coventry Corporation after the First World War and used for housing developments. (Full article...)
Solo Man (Homo erectus soloensis) is a
subspecies of H. erectus that lived along the
Solo River in
Java, Indonesia, about 117,000 to 108,000 years ago in the
Late Pleistocene. This population is the last known record of the species. It is known from 14 skullcaps, two
tibiae, and a piece of the
pelvis excavated near the village of Ngandong, and possibly three skulls from Sambungmacan and a skull from Ngawi depending on classification. The Ngandong site was first excavated from 1931 to 1933 under the direction of Willem Frederik Florus Oppenoorth, Carel ter Haar, and
Gustav Heinrich Ralph von Koenigswald, but further study was set back by the
Great Depression,
World War II and the
Indonesian War of Independence. In accordance with
historical race concepts, Indonesian H. erectus subspecies were originally classified as the direct ancestors of
Aboriginal Australians, but Solo Man is now thought to have no living descendants because the remains far predate modern human immigration into the area, which began roughly 55,000 to 50,000 years ago.
The Solo Man skull is oval-shaped in top view, with heavy brows, inflated cheekbones, and a prominent bar of bone wrapping around the back. The brain volume was quite large, ranging from 1,013 to 1,251 cubic centimetres (61.8 to 76.3 cu in), compared to an average of 1,270 cm3 (78 cu in) for present-day modern males and 1,130 cm3 (69 cu in) for present-day modern females. One potentially female specimen may have been 158 cm (5 ft 2 in) tall and weighed 51 kg (112 lb); males were probably much bigger than females. Solo Man was in many ways similar to the
Java Man (H. e. erectus) that had earlier inhabited Java, but was far less archaic.
Solo Man likely inhabited an open
woodland environment much cooler than present-day Java, along with
elephants,
tigers,
wild cattle,
water buffalo,
tapirs, and
hippopotamuses, among other megafauna. They manufactured simple
flakes and
choppers (hand-held
stone tools), and possibly
spears or
harpoons from bones, daggers from
stingray stingers, as well as
bolas or
hammerstones from
andesite. They may have descended from or were at least closely related to Java Man. The Ngandong specimens likely died during a volcanic eruption. The species probably went extinct with the takeover of tropical rainforest and loss of preferred habitat, beginning by 125,000 years ago. The skulls sustained damage, but it is unclear if it resulted from an assault,
cannibalism, the volcanic eruption, or the fossilisation process. (Full article...)
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Panagiotis Kavvadias or Cawadias (
Greek: Παναγιώτης Καββαδίας; 14 May [
O.S. 2 May] 1850 – 20 July 1928) was a Greek
archaeologist. He was responsible for the excavation of ancient sites in Greece, including
Epidaurus in
Argolis and the
Acropolis of Athens, as well as archaeological discoveries on his native island of
Kephallonia. As
Ephor General (the head of the
Greek Archaeological Service) from 1885 until 1909, Kavvadias oversaw the expansion of the Archaeological Service and the introduction of Law 2646 of 1899, which increased the state's powers to address the illegal excavation and
smuggling of antiquities.
Kavvadias's work had a particular impact on the Acropolis of Athens, and has been credited with completing its "transformation[...] from castle to monument". Between 1885 and 1890, he removed almost all of the Acropolis's remaining medieval and modern structures, uncovering many ancient monuments in the process. He also played a role in the extensive reconstruction of the site by the architect and engineer
Nikolaos Balanos. Though praised initially, the work caused considerable damage to several monuments and was almost completely deconstructed and rebuilt during the later 20th and early 21st centuries. Kavvadias oversaw the opening of the
National Archaeological Museum in Athens, organised its first collections, and wrote some of its first catalogues.
As an administrator, Kavvadias was regarded as energetic, centralising and autocratic. His career saw significant modernisation in the practice of archaeology in Greece, and he reformed and professionalised the Archaeological Service. His patronage of Athens's foreign archaeological schools was credited with promoting the development of Greek archaeology, but was also criticised by native Greek archaeologists. He created further discontent among the
Archaeological Society of Athens by reducing its role in favour of the governmental Archaeological Service. After the
Goudi coup of 1909, dissatisfaction in the Greek press and among his subordinates in the Archaeological Service led to his removal from office, from the Archaeological Society and from his professorship at the
University of Athens, though he was able to return to public and academic life from 1912, and remained active in Greek archaeology until his death in 1928. (Full article...)
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Fort Dobbs was an 18th-century fort in the
Yadkin–Pee Dee River Basin region of the
Province of North Carolina, near what is now
Statesville in
Iredell County. Used for frontier defense during and after the
French and Indian War, the fort was built to protect the
American settlers of the western frontier of North Carolina, and served as a vital outpost for soldiers. Fort Dobbs' primary structure was a
blockhouse with log walls, surrounded by a shallow ditch, and by 1759, a
palisade. It was intended to provide protection from French-allied Native Americans such as the
Shawnee raids into western North Carolina.
The fort's name honored
Arthur Dobbs, the Royal Governor of North Carolina from 1755 to 1765, who played a role in designing the fort and authorized its construction. Between 1756 and 1761, the fort was garrisoned by a variable number of soldiers, many of whom were sent to fight in
Pennsylvania and the
Ohio River Valley during the French and Indian War. On February 27, 1760, the fort was the site of an engagement between Cherokee warriors and Provincial soldiers that ended in a victory for the Provincials.
Fort Dobbs was abandoned in March, 1761, and disappeared from the landscape. Archaeology and historical research led to the discovery of the fort's exact location and probable appearance. The site on which the fort sat is now operated by North Carolina's Division of State Historic Sites and Properties as Fort Dobbs State Historic Site. The reconstruction of the fort was completed on September 21, 2019. (Full article...)
The helmet was constructed by covering the outside of an iron framework with plates of horn and the inside with cloth or leather; the organic material has since decayed. It would have provided some protection against weapons, but was also ornate and may have been intended for ceremonial use. It was the first Anglo-Saxon helmet to be discovered, with five others found since:
Sutton Hoo (1939),
Coppergate (1982),
Wollaston (1997),
Shorwell (2004) and
Staffordshire (2009). The helmet features a unique combination of structural and technical attributes, but contemporaneous parallels exist for its individual characteristics. It is classified as one of the "crested helmets" used in Northern Europe from the 6th to 11th centuries AD.
The most striking feature of the helmet is the boar at its apex; this pagan symbol faces towards a
Christian cross on the
nasal in a display of
syncretism. This is representative of 7th-century England when Christian missionaries were slowly converting Anglo-Saxons away from traditional
Germanic paganism. The helmet seems to exhibit a stronger preference toward paganism, with a large boar and a small cross. The cross may have been added for talismanic effect, the help of any god being welcome on the battlefield. The boar atop the
crest was likewise associated with protection and suggests a time when boar-crested helmets may have been common, as do the helmet from Wollaston and the
Guilden Morden boar. The contemporary epic Beowulf mentions such helmets five times and speaks of the strength of men "when the hefted sword, its hammered edge and gleaming blade slathered in blood, razes the sturdy boar-ridge off a helmet". (Full article...)
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A castle is a type of
fortified structure built during the
Middle Ages predominantly by the
nobility or royalty and by
military orders. Scholars usually consider a castle to be the private
fortified residence of a lord or noble. This is distinct from a
mansion,
palace and
villa, whose main purpose was exclusively for pleasance and are not primarily fortresses but may be fortified. Use of the term has varied over time and, sometimes, has also been applied to structures such as
hill forts and 19th- and 20th-century homes built to resemble castles. Over the Middle Ages, when genuine castles were built, they took on a great many forms with many different features, although some, such as
curtain walls,
arrowslits, and
portcullises, were commonplace.
European-style castles originated in the 9th and 10th centuries, after the fall of the
Carolingian Empire resulted in its territory being divided among individual lords and princes. These nobles built castles to control the area immediately surrounding them and the castles were both offensive and defensive structures: they provided a base from which raids could be launched as well as offered protection from enemies. Although their military origins are often emphasised in castle studies, the structures also served as centres of administration and symbols of power. Urban castles were used to control the local populace and important travel routes, and rural castles were often situated near features that were integral to life in the community, such as mills, fertile land, or a water source.
Many northern European castles were originally built from earth and timber but had their defences replaced later by
stone. Early castles often exploited natural defences, lacking features such as towers and arrowslits and relying on a central
keep. In the late 12th and early 13th centuries, a scientific approach to castle defence emerged. This led to the proliferation of towers, with an emphasis on
flanking fire. Many new castles were polygonal or relied on concentric defence – several stages of defence within each other that could all function at the same time to maximise the castle's firepower. These changes in defence have been attributed to a mixture of castle technology from the
Crusades, such as
concentric fortification, and inspiration from earlier defences, such as
Roman forts. Not all the elements of castle architecture were military in nature, so that devices such as
moats evolved from their original purpose of defence into symbols of power. Some grand castles had long winding approaches intended to impress and dominate their landscape.
Although
gunpowder was introduced to Europe in the 14th century, it did not significantly affect castle building until the 15th century, when artillery became powerful enough to break through stone walls. While castles continued to be built well into the 16th century, new techniques to deal with improved cannon fire made them uncomfortable and undesirable places to live. As a result, true castles went into decline and were replaced by artillery forts with no role in civil administration, and country houses that were indefensible. From the 18th century onwards, there was a renewed interest in castles with the construction of mock castles, part of a
Romanticrevival of Gothic architecture, but they had no military purpose. (Full article...)
Image 6
The Acra (also spelled Akra, from
Ancient Greek: Ἄκρα,
Hebrew: חקרא ,חקרהḤaqra(h)), with the meaning of "stronghold" (see under
"Etymology"), was a place in
Jerusalem thought to have had a fortified
compound built by
Antiochus Epiphanes, ruler of the
Seleucid Empire, following his sack of the city in 168
BCE. The name Acra was also used at a later time for a city quarter probably associated with the by-then destroyed fortress, known in his time to
Josephus (1st century CE) as both Acra and "the lower city". The fortress played a significant role in the events surrounding the
Maccabean Revolt, which resulted in the formation of the
Hasmonean Kingdom. The "upper city" was captured by
Judas Maccabeus, with the Seleucid garrison taking refuge in the "Acra" below, and the task of destroying this last enemy stronghold inside Jerusalem fell to
Simon Maccabeus surnamed Thassi. Our knowledge about the Acra is based almost exclusively on the writings of Josephus, which are of a later date, and on the
First and
Second Books of Maccabees, which were written not long after the described events.
The exact location of Acra within Jerusalem, and even the meaning of the term—fortress, fortified compound inside the city, or compound with an associated fortress—is critical to understanding Hellenistic Jerusalem, but it remains a matter of ongoing discussion. The fact that Josephus has used the name interchangeably with 'the lower city' certainly doesn't help. Historians and archaeologists have proposed various sites around Jerusalem, relying initially mainly on conclusions drawn from literary evidence. This approach began to change in the light of excavations which commenced in the late 1960s. New discoveries have prompted reassessments of the ancient literary sources, Jerusalem's geography, and previously discovered artifacts. The more recent theories combine archaeological and textual evidence and favour locations near the
Temple Mount and south of it, but there are alternative theories as well (see
"Location").
The
ancient Greek term acra was used to describe other fortified structures during the Hellenistic period. The Acra is often called the Seleucid Acra to distinguish it from references to the
Ptolemaic Baris as an acra and from the later city quarter of Jerusalem which inherited the name Acra. (Full article...)
The Nine Stones is part of a tradition of stone circle construction that spread through much of Great Britain, Ireland, and Brittany between 3,300 and 900
BCE, during the
Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age. The stone circle tradition was accompanied by the construction of timber circles and earthen
henges, reflecting a growing emphasis on circular monuments. The purpose of such rings is unknown, although archaeologists speculate that the stones represented
supernatural entities for the circle's builders. At least nine of these stone circles are known to have been constructed near modern Dorset. They are smaller than those found elsewhere in Great Britain and are typically built from
sarsen stone.
Located in the bottom of a narrow valley, the Nine Stones circle has a diameter of 9.1 by 7.8 metres (29 feet 10 inches by 25 feet 7 inches). It consists of nine irregularly spaced sarsen
megaliths, with a small opening on its northern side. Two of the stones on the northwestern side of the monument are considerably larger than the other seven. This architectural feature has parallels with various stone circles in southwestern Scotland, and was potentially a deliberate choice of the circle's builders, to whom it may have had symbolic meaning.
Antiquarians like
John Aubrey and
William Stukeley first took an interest in the site during the eighteenth century. It later received archaeological attention, although it has not been
excavated. Local
folklore has grown up around the circle, associating it with
the Devil and with children petrified into rock. The Nine Stones are regarded as a
sacred site by local
Druids, who perform religious ceremonies there. The circle is adjacent to the
A35 road and encircled by trees. The site is owned by
English Heritage and is open without charge to visitors. (Full article...)
In its earliest form, the castle consisted of a stone
keep, with an
enclosure protected by an earthen bank and a wooden
palisade. When the castle was built, Robert de Vieuxpont was one of the only
lords in the region who were loyal to
King John. The Vieuxponts were a powerful land-owning family in
North West England, who also owned the castles of
Appleby and
Brough. In 1264, Robert de Vieuxpont's grandson, also named Robert, was declared a traitor, and his property was confiscated by
Henry III. Brougham Castle and the other estates were eventually returned to the Vieuxpont family, and stayed in their possession until 1269, when the estates passed to the
Clifford family through marriage.
With the outbreak of the
Wars of Scottish Independence, in 1296, Brougham became an important military base for
Robert Clifford, 1st Baron de Clifford. He began refortifying the castle: the wooden outer defences were replaced with stronger, more impressive stone walls, and a large stone gatehouse was added. The importance of Brougham and Robert Clifford was such that, in 1300, he hosted King
Edward I of England at the castle. Robert's son,
Roger Clifford, was executed as a traitor, in 1322, and the family estates passed into the possession of King
Edward II of England, although they were returned once his son
Edward III became king. The region was often at risk from the
Scots, and in 1388, the castle was captured and sacked.
Following this, the Cliffords began spending more time at their other castles, particularly
Skipton Castle in
Yorkshire. Brougham descended through several generations of Cliffords, intermittently serving as a residence. However, by 1592, it was in a state of disrepair, as
George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland was spending more time in southern England due to his role as
Queen's Champion. The castle was briefly restored in the early 17th century, to such an extent, that King
James I of England was entertained there in 1617. In 1643,
Lady Anne Clifford inherited the estates, including the castles of Brougham, Appleby, and Brough, and set about restoring them. Brougham Castle was kept in good condition for a short time, after Lady Anne's death in 1676; however,
Thomas Tufton, 6th Earl of Thanet, who had inherited the Clifford estates, sold the furnishings in 1714. The empty shell was left to decay, as it was too costly to maintain. As a ruin, Brougham Castle inspired a painting by
J. M. W. Turner, and was mentioned at the start of
William Wordsworth's poem The Prelude, as well as becoming the subject of Wordsworth's Song at the Feast of Brougham Castle upon the Restoration of Lord Clifford, the Shepherd, to the Estates and Honours of his Ancestors. The castle was left to the
Ministry of Works, in the 1930s, and is today maintained by its successor,
English Heritage. (Full article...)
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The Old Exe Bridge is a ruined medieval
arch bridge in
Exeter in south-western England. Construction of the bridge began in 1190, and was completed by 1214. The bridge is the oldest surviving bridge of its size in England and the oldest bridge in Britain with a chapel still on it. It replaced several rudimentary crossings which had been in use sporadically since Roman times. The project was the idea of Nicholas and
Walter Gervase, father and son and influential local merchants, who travelled the country to raise funds. No known records survive of the bridge's builders. The result was a bridge at least 590 feet (180 metres) long, which probably had 17 or 18 arches, carrying the road diagonally from the west gate of the city wall across the
River Exe and its wide, marshy flood plain.
St Edmund's Church, the
bridge chapel, was built into the bridge at the time of its construction, and St Thomas's Church was built on the riverbank at about the same time. The Exe Bridge is unusual among British medieval bridges for having had secular buildings on it as well as the chapel. Timber-framed shops, with houses above, were in place from at least the early 14th century, and later in the bridge's life, all but the most central section carried buildings. As the river silted up, land was reclaimed, allowing a wall to be built from the side of St Edmund's which protected a row of houses and shops which became known as Frog Street. Walter Gervase also commissioned a
chantry chapel, built opposite the church, which came into use after 1257 and continued until the
Reformation in the mid-16th century.
The medieval bridge collapsed and had to be partially rebuilt several times throughout its life; the first recorded rebuilding was in 1286. By 1447 the bridge was severely dilapidated, and the mayor of Exeter appealed for funds to repair it. By the 16th century, it was again in need of repairs. Nonetheless, the bridge was in use for almost 600 years, until a replacement was built in 1778 and the arches across the river were demolished. That bridge was itself replaced in 1905, and again in 1969 by a pair of bridges. During construction of the twin bridges, eight and a half arches of the medieval bridge were uncovered and restored, some of which had been buried for nearly 200 years, and the surrounds were landscaped into a public park. Several more arches are buried under modern buildings. The bridge's remains are a
scheduled monument and grade II
listed building. (Full article...)
The method was developed in the late 1940s at the
University of Chicago by
Willard Libby. It is based on the fact that radiocarbon (14 C) is constantly being created in the
Earth's atmosphere by the interaction of
cosmic rays with atmospheric
nitrogen. The resulting 14 C combines with atmospheric
oxygen to form radioactive
carbon dioxide, which is incorporated into plants by
photosynthesis; animals then acquire 14 C by eating the plants. When the animal or plant dies, it stops exchanging carbon with its environment, and thereafter the amount of 14 C it contains begins to decrease as the 14 C undergoes
radioactive decay. Measuring the proportion of 14 C in a sample from a dead plant or animal, such as a piece of wood or a fragment of bone, provides information that can be used to calculate when the animal or plant died. The older a sample is, the less 14 C there is to be detected, and because the
half-life of 14 C (the period of time after which half of a given sample will have decayed) is about 5,730 years, the oldest dates that can be reliably measured by this process date to approximately 50,000 years ago (in this interval about 99.8% of the 14 C will have decayed), although special preparation methods occasionally make an accurate analysis of older samples possible. In 1960, Libby received the
Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work.
Research has been ongoing since the 1960s to determine what the proportion of 14 C in the atmosphere has been over the past 50,000 years. The resulting data, in the form of a
calibration curve, is now used to convert a given measurement of radiocarbon in a sample into an estimate of the sample's calendar age. Other corrections must be made to account for the proportion of 14 C in different types of organisms (fractionation), and the varying levels of 14 C throughout the
biosphere (reservoir effects). Additional complications come from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, and from the above-ground nuclear tests performed in the 1950s and 1960s.
Because the time it takes to convert biological materials to
fossil fuels is substantially longer than the time it takes for its 14 C to decay below detectable levels, fossil fuels contain almost no 14 C. As a result, beginning in the late 19th century, there was a noticeable drop in the proportion of 14 C in the atmosphere as the carbon dioxide generated from burning fossil fuels began to accumulate. Conversely,
nuclear testing increased the amount of 14 C in the atmosphere, which reached a maximum in about 1965 of almost double the amount present in the atmosphere prior to nuclear testing.
Measurement of radiocarbon was originally done with beta-counting devices, which counted the amount of
beta radiation emitted by decaying 14 C atoms in a sample. More recently,
accelerator mass spectrometry has become the method of choice; it counts all the 14 C atoms in the sample and not just the few that happen to decay during the measurements; it can therefore be used with much smaller samples (as small as individual plant seeds), and gives results much more quickly. The development of radiocarbon dating has had a profound impact on
archaeology. In addition to permitting more accurate dating within archaeological sites than previous methods, it allows comparison of dates of events across great distances. Histories of archaeology often refer to its impact as the "radiocarbon revolution". Radiocarbon dating has allowed key transitions in prehistory to be dated, such as the end of the
last ice age, and the beginning of the
Neolithic and
Bronze Age in different regions. (Full article...)
Image 11
Quiriguá (Spanish pronunciation:[kiɾiˈɣwa]) is an ancient
Mayaarchaeological site in the
department of
Izabal in south-eastern
Guatemala. It is a medium-sized site covering approximately 3 square kilometres (1.2 sq mi) along the lower
Motagua River, with the ceremonial center about 1 km (0.6 mi) from the north bank. During the
Maya Classic Period (AD 200–900), Quiriguá was situated at the juncture of several important
trade routes. The site was occupied by 200, construction on the
acropolis had begun by about 550, and an explosion of grander construction started in the 8th century. All construction had halted by about 850, except for a brief period of reoccupation in the Early
Postclassic (c. 900 – c. 1200). Quiriguá shares its architectural and sculptural styles with the nearby Classic Period city of
Copán, with whose history it is closely entwined.
Quiriguá's rapid expansion in the 8th century was tied to king
K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat's military victory over Copán in 738. When the greatest king of Copán,
Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil or "18-Rabbit", was defeated, he was captured and then sacrificed in the Great Plaza at Quiriguá. Before this, Quiriguá had been a
vassal state of Copán, but it maintained its independence afterwards. The ceremonial
architecture at Quiriguá is quite modest, but the site's importance lies in its wealth of sculpture, including the tallest stone
monumental sculpture ever erected in the
New World. Because of its historical importance, the site of Quiriguá was inscribed on the
UNESCOWorld Heritage List in 1981. (Full article...)
A double concentric circle consisting of
sarsenmegaliths, Fir Clump stone circle was oval-shaped. The outer ring measured 107 metres (351 ft) by 86.5 metres (284 ft) in diameter; the inner ring was 86.5 metres (284 ft) by 73.7 metres (242 ft). It was one of at least seven stone circles that are known to have been erected in the area south of
Swindon in northern Wiltshire. Around the 1860s, the megaliths of Fir Clump stone circle were levelled. In the 1890s, the antiquarian A. D. Passmore observed that the circle was no longer visible. Some of the fallen megaliths were rediscovered in 1965 by the archaeologist Richard Reiss, who described and measured the monument. In 1969, these stones were removed during construction of the
M4 motorway. (Full article...)
As a representative of the Bavarocracy – the dominance by northern Europeans, especially
Bavarians, of Greek government and institutions under the Bavarian
King Otto of Greece – Ross attracted the enmity of the native Greek archaeological establishment. He was forced to resign as Ephor General over his delivery of the Athenian "Naval Records", a series of inscriptions first unearthed in 1834, to the German
August Böckh for publication. He was subsequently appointed as the first professor of archaeology at the
University of Athens, but lost his post as a result of the
3 September 1843 Revolution, which removed most non-Greeks from public service in the country. He spent his final years as a professor in
Halle, where he argued unsuccessfully against the reconstruction of the
Indo-European language family, believing the
Latin language to be a direct descendant of
Ancient Greek.
Ross has been called "one of the most important figures in the cultural revival of Greece." He is credited with creating the foundations for the science of archaeology in independent Greece, and for establishing a systematic approach to excavation and conservation in the earliest days of the country's formal archaeological practice. His publications, particularly in
epigraphy, were widely used by contemporary scholars. At Athens, he educated the first generation of natively trained Greek archaeologists, including
Panagiotis Efstratiadis, one of the foremost Greek epigraphers of the 19th century and a successor of Ross as Ephor General. (Full article...)
The city was probably founded between 300 and 285 BC by an official acting on the orders of
Seleucus I Nicator or his son
Antiochus I Soter, the first two rulers of the
Seleucid dynasty. There is a possibility that the site was known to the earlier
Achaemenid Empire, who established a small fort nearby. Ai-Khanoum was originally thought to have been
a foundation of
Alexander the Great, perhaps as
Alexandria Oxiana, but this theory is now considered unlikely. Located at the confluence of the
Amu Darya (
a.k.a. Oxus) and
Kokcha rivers, surrounded by
well-irrigated farmland, the city itself was divided between a lower town and a 60-metre-high (200 ft)
acropolis. Although not situated on a major
trade route, Ai-Khanoum controlled access to both mining in the
Hindu Kush and strategically important
choke points. Extensive
fortifications, which were continually maintained and improved, surrounded the city.
Ai-Khanoum, which may have initially
grown in population because of royal
patronage and the presence of a
mint in the city, lost some importance through the
secession of the Greco-Bactrians under
Diodotus I (
c. 250 BC). Seleucid construction programmes were halted and the city probably became primarily military in function; it may have been a
conflict zone during
the invasion of Antiochus III (
c. 209 – c. 205 BC). Ai-Khanoum began to grow once more under
Euthydemus I and his successor
Demetrius I, who began to assert control over the northwest
Indian subcontinent. Many of the present ruins date from the time of
Eucratides I, who substantially redeveloped the city and who may have renamed it
Eucratideia, after himself. Soon after his death
c. 145 BC, the Greco-Bactrian kingdom collapsed—Ai-Khanoum was captured by
Saka invaders and was generally abandoned, although parts of the city were sporadically occupied until the 2nd century AD. Hellenistic culture in the region would persist longer only in the
Indo-Greek kingdoms.
The track extended across the now largely drained
marsh between what was then an island at
Westhay and a ridge of high ground at
Shapwick, a distance close to 1,800 metres (5,900 ft) or around 1.1 mi. The track is one of a network that once crossed the
Somerset Levels. Various artifacts and prehistoric finds, including a
jadeitite ceremonial axe head, have been found in the peat bogs along its length.
Construction was of crossed wooden poles, driven into the waterlogged soil to support a walkway that consisted mainly of planks of
oak, laid end-to-end. The track was used for a period of only around ten years and was then abandoned, probably due to rising water levels. Following its discovery in 1970, most of the track has been left in its original location, with active
conservation measures taken, including a water pumping and distribution system to maintain the wood in its damp condition. Some of the track is stored at the
British Museum and at the
Museum of Somerset in Taunton. A reconstruction has been made on which visitors can walk, on the same line as the original, in
Shapwick Heath National Nature Reserve. (Full article...)
Image 16
The Clonmacnoise Crozier is a late-11th-century
Insular crozier that would have been used as a ceremonial staff for
bishops and mitred
abbots. Its origins and medieval
provenance are unknown. It was likely discovered in the late 18th or early 19th century in the monastery of
Clonmacnoise in
County Offaly, Ireland. The crozier has two main parts: a long
shaft and a curved
crook. Its style reflects elements of
Viking art, especially the snake-like animals in
figure-of-eight patterns running on the sides of the body of the crook, and the ribbon of dog-like animals in
openwork (ornamentation with openings or holes) that form the crest at its top. Apart from a shortening to the staff length and the loss of some inserted gems, it is largely intact and is one of the best-preserved surviving pieces of
Insular metalwork.
The crozier may have been associated with
Saint Ciarán of Clonmacnoise (died
c. 549 CE), and was perhaps commissioned by
Tigernach Ua Braín (died 1088),
Abbot of Clonmacnoise, but little is known of its origin or rediscovery. It was built in two phases: the original 11th-century structure received an addition sometime around the early 15th century. The staff is made from a wooden core wrapped in
copper-alloy (
bronze) tubes, fixed in place by binding strips, and three barrel-shaped
knops (protruding decorative metal fittings). The hook was concurrently but separately constructed before it was placed on top of the staff. The crozier's decorative attachments include the crest and terminal (or "
drop") on the crook, and the knops and
ferrule on the staff; these components are made from silver,
niello, glass and
enamel. The hook is further embellished with round blue glass studs and white and red
millefiori (glassware) insets.
Nigel Reuben Rook Williams (15 July 1944 – 21 April 1992) was an English
conservator and expert on the restoration of ceramics and glass. From 1961 until his death he worked at the
British Museum, where he became the Chief Conservator of Ceramics and Glass in 1983. There his work included the successful restorations of the
Sutton Hoo helmet and the
Portland Vase.
Joining as an assistant at age 16, Williams spent his entire career, and most of his life, at the British Museum. He was one of the first people to study conservation, not yet recognised as a profession, and from an early age was given responsibility over high-profile objects. In the 1960s he assisted with the re-excavation of the
Sutton Hooship-burial, and in his early- to mid-twenties he conserved many of the objects found therein: most notably the Sutton Hoo helmet, which occupied a year of his time. He likewise reconstructed other objects from the find, including the shield, drinking horns, and maplewood bottles.
The "abiding passion of his life" was ceramics, and the 1970s and 1980s gave Williams ample opportunities in that field. After nearly 31,000 fragments of shattered
Greek vases were found in 1974 amidst the wreck of
HMS Colossus, Williams set to work piecing them together. The process was televised, and turned him into a television personality. A decade later, in 1988 and 1989, Williams's crowning achievement came when he took to pieces the Portland Vase, one of the most famous glass objects in the world, and put it back together. The reconstruction was again televised for a BBC programme, and as with the Sutton Hoo helmet, took nearly a year to complete.
Williams died at age 47 of a heart attack while in
Aqaba,
Jordan, where he was working on a British Museum excavation. The Ceramics & Glass group of the
Institute of Conservation awards a biennial prize in his honour, recognising his significant contributions in the field of conservation. (Full article...)
Image 18
The Temple of Eshmun (
Arabic: معبد أشمون) is an ancient
place of worship dedicated to
Eshmun, the
Phoenician god of healing. It is located near the
Awali river, 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) northeast of
Sidon in southwestern
Lebanon. The site was occupied from the 7th century BC to the 8th century AD, suggesting an integrated relationship with the nearby city of Sidon. Although originally constructed by Sidonian king
Eshmunazar II in the
Achaemenid era (
c. 529–333 BC) to celebrate the city's recovered wealth and stature, the temple complex was greatly expanded by
Bodashtart,
Yatonmilk and later monarchs. Because the continued expansion spanned many centuries of alternating independence and foreign
hegemony, the sanctuary features a wealth of different architectural and decorative styles and influences.
The sanctuary consists of an
esplanade and a grand court limited by a huge
limestone terrace wall that supports a monumental
podium which was once topped by Eshmun's Greco-Persian style
marble temple. The sanctuary features a series of ritual
ablution basins fed by canals channeling water from the Asclepius river (modern
Awali) and from the sacred "YDLL" spring; these installations were used for therapeutic and purificatory purposes that characterize the cult of Eshmun. The sanctuary site has yielded many artifacts of value, especially those inscribed with
Phoenician texts, such as the
Bodashtart inscriptions and the
Eshmun inscription, providing valuable insight into the site's history and that of ancient Sidon.
The Eshmun Temple was improved during the early
Roman Empire with a colonnade street, but declined after earthquakes and fell into oblivion as
Christianity replaced
polytheism and its large limestone blocks were used to build later structures. The temple site was rediscovered in 1900 by local
treasure hunters who stirred the curiosity of international scholars.
Maurice Dunand, a French archaeologist, thoroughly excavated the site from 1963 until the beginning of the
Lebanese Civil War in 1975. After the end of the hostilities and the retreat of
Israel from
Southern Lebanon, the site was rehabilitated and inscribed to the
World Heritage Site tentative list. (Full article...)
Constructed of gray
andesite-like stone, the temple consists of nine stacked platforms, six square and three circular, topped by a central
dome. It is decorated with 2,672
relief panels and originally 504
Buddha statues. The central dome is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues, each seated inside a perforated
stupa. The monument guides pilgrims through an extensive system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the walls and the
balustrades. Borobudur has one of the world's most extensive collections of Buddhist reliefs.
Built during the reign of the
Sailendra Dynasty, the temple design follows
JavaneseBuddhist architecture, which blends the
Indonesian indigenous tradition of
ancestor worship and the Buddhist concept of attaining
nirvāṇa. The monument is a
shrine to the
Buddha and a place for
Buddhist pilgrimage. Evidence suggests that Borobudur was constructed in the 8th century and subsequently abandoned following the 14th-century decline of
Hindu kingdoms in Java and the
Javanese conversion to Islam. Worldwide knowledge of its existence was sparked in 1814 by
Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, then the
British ruler of Java, who was advised of its location by native Indonesians. Borobudur has since been preserved through several restorations. The largest restoration project was completed at 1983 by the
Indonesian government and
UNESCO, followed by the monument's listing as a UNESCO
World Heritage Site.
The dynasty is divided into
two periods: Northern Song and Southern Song. During the Northern Song (
Chinese: 北宋; 960–1127), the capital was in the northern city of Bianjing (now
Kaifeng) and the dynasty controlled most of what is now
Eastern China. The
Southern Song (
Chinese: 南宋; 1127–1279) refers to the period after the Song lost control of its northern half to the
Jurchen-led
Jin dynasty in the
Jin–Song Wars. At that time, the Song court retreated south of the
Yangtze and established its capital at
Lin'an (now
Hangzhou). Although the Song dynasty had lost control of the traditional Chinese heartlands around the
Yellow River, the Southern Song Empire contained a large population and productive agricultural land, sustaining a robust economy. In 1234, the Jin dynasty was
conquered by the Mongols, who took control of northern China, maintaining uneasy relations with the Southern Song.
Möngke Khan, the fourth
Great Khan of the
Mongol Empire, died in 1259 while besieging the mountain castle
Diaoyucheng,
Chongqing. His younger brother
Kublai Khan was proclaimed the new Great Khan and in 1271 founded the Yuan dynasty. After two decades of sporadic warfare, Kublai Khan's armies
conquered the Song dynasty in 1279 after defeating the Southern Song in the
Battle of Yamen, and reunited China under the Yuan dynasty.
Technology, science, philosophy, mathematics, and
engineering flourished during the Song era. The Song dynasty was the first in world history to issue
banknotes or true paper money and the first Chinese government to establish
a permanent standing navy. This dynasty saw the first surviving records of the chemical formula for
gunpowder, the invention of
gunpowder weapons such as
fire arrows,
bombs, and the
fire lance. It also saw the first discernment of
true north using a
compass, first recorded description of the
pound lock, and improved designs of
astronomical clocks. Economically, the Song dynasty was unparalleled with a
gross domestic product three times larger than that of Europe during the 12th century. China's population doubled in size between the 10th and 11th centuries. This growth was made possible by expanded
rice cultivation, use of early-ripening rice from Southeast and South Asia, and production of widespread food surpluses. The Northern Song census recorded 20 million households, double of the
Han and
Tang dynasties. It is estimated that the Northern Song had a population of 90 million people, and 200 million by the time of the
Ming dynasty. This dramatic increase of population fomented an
economic revolution in pre-modern China.
The sarcophagus ofEshmunazar II is a 6th-century BC
sarcophagus unearthed in 1855 in the grounds of an ancient
necropolis southeast of the city of
Sidon, in modern-day
Lebanon, that contained the body of
Eshmunazar II (
Phoenician: 𐤀𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤏𐤆𐤓ʾšmnʿzr,
r.
c. 539 –
c. 525 BC),
PhoenicianKing of Sidon. One of only three
Ancient Egyptian sarcophagi found outside Egypt, with the other two belonging to Eshmunazar's father King
Tabnit and to a woman, possibly Eshmunazar's mother Queen
Amoashtart, it was likely carved in
Egypt from local
amphibolite, and captured as booty by the Sidonians during their participation in
Cambyses II's
conquest of Egypt in 525 BC. The sarcophagus has two sets of
Phoenician inscriptions, one on its lid and a partial copy of it on the sarcophagus trough, around the curvature of the head. The lid inscription was of great significance upon its discovery as it was the first
Phoenician language inscription to be discovered in Phoenicia proper and the most detailed Phoenician text ever found anywhere up to that point, and is today the second longest extant Phoenician inscription, after the
Karatepe bilingual.
The sarcophagus was discovered by
Alphonse Durighello, a diplomatic agent in Sidon engaged by
Aimé Péretié, the
chancellor of the French
consulate in
Beirut. The sarcophagus was sold to
Honoré de Luynes, a wealthy
French nobleman and scholar, and was subsequently removed to the
Louvre after the resolution of a legal dispute over its ownership.
More than a dozen scholars across Europe and the United States rushed to translate the sarcophagus inscriptions after its discovery, many noting the similarities between the Phoenician language and
Hebrew. The translation allowed scholars to identify the king buried inside, his lineage, and his construction feats. The inscriptions warn against disturbing Eshmunazar II's place of repose; it also recounts that the "Lord of Kings", the
Achaemenid king, granted Eshmunazar II the territories of
Dor,
Joppa, and
Dagon in recognition for his services.
The discovery led to great enthusiasm for archaeological research in the region and was the primary reason for Renan's 1860–1861 Mission de Phénicie, the first major archaeological mission to Lebanon and Syria. Today, it remains one of the highlights of the Louvre's Phoenician collection. (Full article...)
Probably constructed in the
4th millennium BCE, during
Britain's Early Neolithic period, it was discovered in 1822, at which point it was dismantled. Built out of earth and at least five local
sarsenmegaliths, the long barrow consisted of a roughly rectangular earthen
tumulus with a stone chamber in its eastern end. Human remains were deposited into this chamber.
Archaeologists have established that the monument was built by
pastoralist communities shortly after the introduction of
agriculture to Britain from continental Europe. Although representing part of an architectural tradition of long barrow building widespread across Neolithic Europe, Smythe's Megalith belonged to a localised regional variant produced in the vicinity of the
River Medway, now known as the
Medway Megaliths.
The site may have been ransacked during the Middle Ages, as other Medway Megaliths were. By the early 19th century it was buried beneath soil, largely due to millennia of
hillwash coming down from the adjacent
Blue Bell Hill. In 1822, it was discovered by farm labourers ploughing the land; the local
antiquarians Clement Smythe and Thomas Charles were called in to examine it. Shortly after, the labourers pulled away the stones and dispersed most of the human remains, destroying the monument. Smythe and Charles produced, but did not publish, reports on their findings, and these have been discussed by archaeologists since the mid-20th century. (Full article...)
The
priory was established as an
Augustinian foundation in the 12th century, and was raised to the status of an abbey in 1391. The abbey was closed in 1536, as part of the
dissolution of the monasteries. Nine years later the surviving structures, together with the
manor of Norton, were purchased by Sir
Richard Brooke, who built a
Tudor house on the site, incorporating part of the abbey. This was replaced in the 18th century by a
Georgian house. The Brooke family left the house in 1921, and it was partially demolished in 1928. In 1966 the site was given in trust for the use of the general public.
Excavation of the site began in 1971, and became the largest to be carried out by modern methods on any European monastic site. It revealed the foundations and lower parts of the walls of the monastery buildings and the abbey church. Important finds included: a
Norman doorway; a finely carved
arcade; a floor of
mosaic tiles, the largest floor area of this type to be found in any modern excavation; the remains of the
kiln where the tiles were fired; a
bell casting pit used for casting the bell; and a large medieval
statue of Saint Christopher.
The priory was opened to the public as a visitor attraction in the 1970s. The 42-acre site, run by an independent charitable trust, includes a museum, the excavated ruins, and the surrounding garden and woodland. In 1984 the separate
walled garden was redesigned and opened to the public. Norton Priory offers a programme of events, exhibitions, educational courses, and outreach projects. In August 2016, a larger and much extended museum opened. (Full article...)
The earliest
archaeological evidence of human activity on the site consists of a
Neolithiccausewayed enclosure and
bank barrow. In about 1800 BC, during the
Bronze Age, the site was used for growing crops before being abandoned. Maiden Castle itself was built in about 600 BC; the early phase was a simple and unremarkable site, similar to many other hill forts in Britain and covering 6.4 ha (16 acres).
Around 450 BC it was greatly expanded and the enclosed area nearly tripled in size to 19 ha (47 acres), making it the largest hill fort in Britain and, by some definitions, the largest in Europe. At the same time, Maiden Castle's defences were made more complex with the addition of further
ramparts and
ditches. Around 100 BC, habitation at the hill fort went into decline and became concentrated at the eastern end of the site. It was occupied until at least the
Roman period, by which time it was in the territory of the
Durotriges, a
Celtic tribe.
After the
Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century AD, Maiden Castle appears to have been abandoned, although the Romans may have had a military presence on the site. In the late 4th century AD, a temple and ancillary buildings were constructed. In the 6th century AD the hill top was entirely abandoned and was used only for agriculture during the medieval period. Maiden Castle has provided inspiration for composer
John Ireland and authors
Thomas Hardy and
John Cowper Powys. The study of hill forts was popularised in the 19th century by archaeologist
Augustus Pitt Rivers. In the 1930s, archaeologist
Mortimer Wheeler and
Tessa Verney Wheeler undertook the first
archaeological excavations at Maiden Castle, raising its profile among the public. Further excavations were carried out under Niall Sharples, which added to an understanding of the site and repaired damage caused in part by the large number of visitors. Today the site is protected as a
Scheduled Monument and is maintained by
English Heritage. (Full article...)
Image 25
Herbert James MaryonOBEFSAFIIC (9 March 1874 – 14 July 1965) was an English sculptor,
conservator, goldsmith, archaeologist and authority on ancient metalwork. Maryon practiced and taught sculpture until retiring in 1939, then worked as a conservator with the
British Museum from 1944 to 1961. He is best known for his work on the
Sutton Hooship-burial, which led to his appointment as an Officer of the
Order of the British Empire.
By the time of his mid-twenties Maryon attended three art schools, apprenticed in silversmithing with
C. R. Ashbee, and worked in
Henry Wilson's workshop. From 1900 to 1904 he served as the director of the
Keswick School of Industrial Art, where he designed numerous
Arts and Crafts works. After moving to the
University of Reading and then
Durham University, he taught sculpture, metalwork, modelling, casting, and anatomy until 1939. He also designed the
University of Reading War Memorial, among other commissions. Maryon published two books while teaching, including Metalwork and Enamelling, and many articles. He frequently led archaeological digs, and in 1935 discovered one of the oldest gold ornaments known in Britain while excavating the
Kirkhaugh cairns.
In 1944 Maryon was brought out of retirement to work in the Sutton Hoo finds. His responsibilities included restoring the shield, the drinking horns, and the iconic
Sutton Hoo helmet, which proved academically and culturally influential. Maryon's work, much of which was revised in the 1970s, created credible renderings upon which subsequent research relied; likewise, one of his papers coined the term pattern welding to describe a method employed on the Sutton Hoo sword to decorate and strengthen iron and steel. The initial work ended in 1950, and Maryon turned to other matters. He proposed a widely publicised theory in 1953 on the construction of the
Colossus of Rhodes, influencing
Salvador Dalí and others, and restored the Roman
Emesa helmet in 1955. He left the museum in 1961, a year after his official retirement, and began an around-the-world trip lecturing and researching
Chinese magic mirrors. (Full article...)
The helmet was constructed by covering the outside of an iron framework with plates of horn and the inside with cloth or leather; the organic material has since decayed. It would have provided some protection against weapons, but was also ornate and may have been intended for ceremonial use. It was the first Anglo-Saxon helmet to be discovered, with five others found since:
Sutton Hoo (1939),
Coppergate (1982),
Wollaston (1997),
Shorwell (2004) and
Staffordshire (2009). The helmet features a unique combination of structural and technical attributes, but contemporaneous parallels exist for its individual characteristics. It is classified as one of the "crested helmets" used in Northern Europe from the 6th to 11th centuries AD.
The most striking feature of the helmet is the boar at its apex; this pagan symbol faces towards a
Christian cross on the
nasal in a display of
syncretism. This is representative of 7th-century England when Christian missionaries were slowly converting Anglo-Saxons away from traditional
Germanic paganism. The helmet seems to exhibit a stronger preference toward paganism, with a large boar and a small cross. The cross may have been added for talismanic effect, the help of any god being welcome on the battlefield. The boar atop the
crest was likewise associated with protection and suggests a time when boar-crested helmets may have been common, as do the helmet from Wollaston and the
Guilden Morden boar. The contemporary epic Beowulf mentions such helmets five times and speaks of the strength of men "when the hefted sword, its hammered edge and gleaming blade slathered in blood, razes the sturdy boar-ridge off a helmet". (Full article...)
The grave was discovered by members of a
metal detecting club in May 2004, and
excavated by
archaeologists that November. Ploughing had destroyed much of the surrounding Anglo-Saxon cemetery, leaving this as the only individually identifiable grave. The helmet had fragmented into around 400 pieces, perhaps in part because of
subsoiling, and was originally identified as a "fragmentary iron vessel". Only after it was acquired by the
British Museum and reconstructed was it identified as a helmet. It remains in the museum's collection, but as of 2019 is not on display.
Exhibiting hardly any decoration other than a speculative exterior leather covering, the Shorwell helmet was a utilitarian fighting helmet. It was simply and sturdily designed out of eight pieces of riveted iron; its only decorative elements were paired with functional uses. The helmet's plainness belies its significance, for helmets were rare in Anglo-Saxon England, and appear to have been limited to the higher classes. The recovery of only six Anglo-Saxon helmets despite the excavation of thousands of graves suggests that their owners had some status. (Full article...)
Image 3
The Corp Naomh ([kɔɾˠpˠn̪ˠiːvˠ],
KORPNEEV, English: Holy or Sacred Body) is an Irish
bell shrine made in the 9th or 10th century to enclose a now-lost
hand-bell, which probably dated to
c. 600 to 900 AD and belonged to an
early Irish saint. The shrine was rediscovered sometime before 1682 at
Tristernagh Abbey, near Templecross,
County Westmeath. The shrine is 23 cm (9.1 in) high and 12 cm (4.7 in) wide. It was heavily refurbished and added to during a second phase of embellishment in the 15th century, and now consists of
cast and
sheetbronze plates mounted on a wooden core decorated with silver,
niello and
rock crystal. It is severely damaged with extensive losses and wear across almost all of its parts, and when discovered a block of wood had been substituted for the bell itself. The remaining elements are considered of high historical and artistic value by
archeologists and
art historians.
Sections from its original,
early Medieval phase include the
cross on the reverse and the ornate semi-circular
cap, which shows a bearded
cleric holding a book. He is surrounded by horsemen above whom are large birds seemingly about to take flight. It was extensively refurbished in the 15th (and possibly 16th) centuries when the central bronze
crucifix, the
griffin and lion panel, the stamped border panels and the backing plate were added. The badly damaged crucifix and large
enamel stud on the front date from at least the 15th century.
The shrine's medieval
provenance is incomplete. It was probably held by hereditary keepers after the dissolution of Tristernagh Abbey in 1536 until it passed into the possession of the
Anglo-Irish owners of the site. The Corp Naomh was first exhibited in 1853 by the
Royal Irish Academy (RIA) and was transferred to the
National Museum of Ireland in 1887. (Full article...)
Image 4
Fort Dobbs was an 18th-century fort in the
Yadkin–Pee Dee River Basin region of the
Province of North Carolina, near what is now
Statesville in
Iredell County. Used for frontier defense during and after the
French and Indian War, the fort was built to protect the
American settlers of the western frontier of North Carolina, and served as a vital outpost for soldiers. Fort Dobbs' primary structure was a
blockhouse with log walls, surrounded by a shallow ditch, and by 1759, a
palisade. It was intended to provide protection from French-allied Native Americans such as the
Shawnee raids into western North Carolina.
The fort's name honored
Arthur Dobbs, the Royal Governor of North Carolina from 1755 to 1765, who played a role in designing the fort and authorized its construction. Between 1756 and 1761, the fort was garrisoned by a variable number of soldiers, many of whom were sent to fight in
Pennsylvania and the
Ohio River Valley during the French and Indian War. On February 27, 1760, the fort was the site of an engagement between Cherokee warriors and Provincial soldiers that ended in a victory for the Provincials.
Fort Dobbs was abandoned in March, 1761, and disappeared from the landscape. Archaeology and historical research led to the discovery of the fort's exact location and probable appearance. The site on which the fort sat is now operated by North Carolina's Division of State Historic Sites and Properties as Fort Dobbs State Historic Site. The reconstruction of the fort was completed on September 21, 2019. (Full article...)
Image 5
The sarcophagus ofEshmunazar II is a 6th-century BC
sarcophagus unearthed in 1855 in the grounds of an ancient
necropolis southeast of the city of
Sidon, in modern-day
Lebanon, that contained the body of
Eshmunazar II (
Phoenician: 𐤀𐤔𐤌𐤍𐤏𐤆𐤓ʾšmnʿzr,
r.
c. 539 –
c. 525 BC),
PhoenicianKing of Sidon. One of only three
Ancient Egyptian sarcophagi found outside Egypt, with the other two belonging to Eshmunazar's father King
Tabnit and to a woman, possibly Eshmunazar's mother Queen
Amoashtart, it was likely carved in
Egypt from local
amphibolite, and captured as booty by the Sidonians during their participation in
Cambyses II's
conquest of Egypt in 525 BC. The sarcophagus has two sets of
Phoenician inscriptions, one on its lid and a partial copy of it on the sarcophagus trough, around the curvature of the head. The lid inscription was of great significance upon its discovery as it was the first
Phoenician language inscription to be discovered in Phoenicia proper and the most detailed Phoenician text ever found anywhere up to that point, and is today the second longest extant Phoenician inscription, after the
Karatepe bilingual.
The sarcophagus was discovered by
Alphonse Durighello, a diplomatic agent in Sidon engaged by
Aimé Péretié, the
chancellor of the French
consulate in
Beirut. The sarcophagus was sold to
Honoré de Luynes, a wealthy
French nobleman and scholar, and was subsequently removed to the
Louvre after the resolution of a legal dispute over its ownership.
More than a dozen scholars across Europe and the United States rushed to translate the sarcophagus inscriptions after its discovery, many noting the similarities between the Phoenician language and
Hebrew. The translation allowed scholars to identify the king buried inside, his lineage, and his construction feats. The inscriptions warn against disturbing Eshmunazar II's place of repose; it also recounts that the "Lord of Kings", the
Achaemenid king, granted Eshmunazar II the territories of
Dor,
Joppa, and
Dagon in recognition for his services.
The discovery led to great enthusiasm for archaeological research in the region and was the primary reason for Renan's 1860–1861 Mission de Phénicie, the first major archaeological mission to Lebanon and Syria. Today, it remains one of the highlights of the Louvre's Phoenician collection. (Full article...)
A double concentric circle consisting of
sarsenmegaliths, Fir Clump stone circle was oval-shaped. The outer ring measured 107 metres (351 ft) by 86.5 metres (284 ft) in diameter; the inner ring was 86.5 metres (284 ft) by 73.7 metres (242 ft). It was one of at least seven stone circles that are known to have been erected in the area south of
Swindon in northern Wiltshire. Around the 1860s, the megaliths of Fir Clump stone circle were levelled. In the 1890s, the antiquarian A. D. Passmore observed that the circle was no longer visible. Some of the fallen megaliths were rediscovered in 1965 by the archaeologist Richard Reiss, who described and measured the monument. In 1969, these stones were removed during construction of the
M4 motorway. (Full article...)
In his Dream Pool Essays or Dream Torrent Essays (夢溪筆談; Mengxi Bitan) of 1088, Shen was the first to describe the magnetic needle
compass, which would be used for navigation (first described in Europe by
Alexander Neckam in 1187). Shen discovered the concept of
true north in terms of
magnetic declination towards the
north pole, with experimentation of suspended magnetic needles and "the improved
meridian determined by Shen's [astronomical] measurement of the distance between the
pole star and true north". This was the decisive step in human history to make compasses more useful for navigation, and may have been a concept unknown in Europe
for another four hundred years (evidence of German sundials made circa 1450 show markings similar to Chinese geomancers' compasses in regard to declination).
Alongside his colleague
Wei Pu, Shen planned to map the orbital paths of the Moon and the planets in an intensive five-year project involving daily observations, yet this was thwarted by political opponents at court. To aid his work in astronomy, Shen Kuo made improved designs of the
armillary sphere,
gnomon, sighting tube, and
invented a new type of inflow
water clock. Shen Kuo devised a
geological hypothesis for land formation (
geomorphology), based upon findings of inland
marinefossils, knowledge of
soil erosion, and the
deposition of
silt. He also proposed a hypothesis of gradual
climate change, after observing ancient
petrifiedbamboos that were preserved underground in a dry northern habitat that would not support bamboo growth in his time. He was the first literary figure in China to mention the use of the
drydock to repair boats suspended out of water, and also wrote of the effectiveness of the relatively new invention of the canal
pound lock. Although not the first to invent
camera obscura, Shen noted the relation of the
focal point of a
concave mirror and that of the pinhole. Shen wrote extensively about
movable typeprinting invented by
Bi Sheng (990–1051), and because of his written works the legacy of Bi Sheng and the modern understanding of the earliest movable type has been handed down to later generations. Following an old tradition in China, Shen created a
raised-relief map while inspecting borderlands. His description of an ancient crossbow mechanism he unearthed as
an amateur archaeologist proved to be a
Jacob's staff, a
surveying tool which wasn't known in Europe until described by
Levi ben Gerson in 1321.
Shen Kuo wrote several other books besides the Dream Pool Essays, yet much of the writing in his other books has not survived. Some of Shen's
poetry was preserved in posthumous written works. Although much of his focus was on technical and scientific issues, he had an interest in
divination and the supernatural, the latter including his vivid description of
unidentified flying objects from eyewitness testimony. He also wrote commentary on ancient
Daoist and
Confucian texts. (Full article...)
Image 8
Kyriakos S. Pittakis (also Pittakys;
Greek: Κυριακός Σ. Πιττάκης; 1798 – 4 November [
O.S. 23 October] 1863) was a Greek
archaeologist. He was the first Greek to serve as
Ephor General of Antiquities, the head of the
Greek Archaeological Service, in which capacity he carried out the conservation and restoration of several monuments on the
Acropolis of Athens. He has been described as a "dominant figure in Greek archaeology for 27 years", and as "one of the most important
epigraphers of the nineteenth century".
Pittakis was largely self-taught as an archaeologist, and one of the few native Greeks active in the field during the late
Ottoman period and the early years of the
Kingdom of Greece. He played an influential role in the early years of the Greek Archaeological Service and was a founding member of the
Archaeological Society of Athens, a private body which undertook the excavation, conservation and publication of archaeological finds. He was responsible for much of the early excavation and restoration of the Acropolis, including efforts to restore the
Erechtheion, the
Parthenon, the
Temple of Athena Nike and the
Propylaia. As ephor of the Central Public Museum for Antiquities from 1836, and later as Ephor General, he was largely responsible for the conservation and protection of many of the monuments and artefacts then known from
Ancient Greece.
Pittakis has been described as the last representative of the "heroic period" of Greek archaeologists. He was prolific both as an excavator and as an archaeological writer, publishing by his own estimation more than 4,000 inscriptions. He has been praised for his extensive efforts to uncover and protect Greece's classical heritage, particularly in Athens and the adjacent islands, but criticised for his unsystematic and incautious approach. His reconstructions of ancient monuments often prioritised aesthetics over fidelity to the original, and were largely reverted after his death. He has also been accused of allowing his strong
nationalist beliefs to influence his reconstruction of ancient monuments, and of distorting the
archaeological record to suit his own beliefs. (Full article...)
Ancient Egypt reached the pinnacle of its power during the New Kingdom, ruling much of
Nubia and a sizable portion of the
Levant. After this period, it entered an era of slow decline. During the course of its history, Ancient Egypt was invaded or conquered by a number of foreign powers, including the
Hyksos, the
Nubians, the
Assyrians, the
Achaemenid Persians, and the
Macedonians under
Alexander the Great. The Greek
Ptolemaic Kingdom, formed in the aftermath of Alexander's death, ruled until 30BC, when, under
Cleopatra, it fell to the
Roman Empire and became
a Roman province. Egypt remained under Roman control until the 640s AD, when it was
conquered by the
Rashidun Caliphate.
The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the
Nile River valley for agriculture. The predictable
flooding and controlled
irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and
social development and culture. With resources to spare, the
administration sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions, the early development of an independent
writing system, the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade with surrounding regions, and
a military intended to assert Egyptian dominance. Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite
scribes, religious leaders, and administrators under the control of a
pharaoh, who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people in the context of an elaborate system of
religious beliefs.[1] The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the
quarrying,
surveying, and construction techniques that supported the building of monumental
pyramids,
temples, and
obelisks; a system of
mathematics, a practical and effective
system of medicine, irrigation systems, and agricultural production techniques, the first known planked boats,
Egyptian faience and glass technology, new forms of
literature, and the
earliest known peace treaty, made with the
Hittites. Ancient Egypt has left a lasting legacy. Its
art and
architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities were carried off to far corners of the world. Its monumental ruins have
inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for millennia. A newfound respect for antiquities and excavations in the early modern period by Europeans and Egyptians has led to the
scientific investigation of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy. (Full article...)
Archaeologists have established that long barrows were built by
pastoralist communities shortly after the introduction of
agriculture to Britain from continental Europe. Representing an architectural tradition of long barrow building that was widespread across Neolithic Europe, Chestnuts Long Barrow belongs to a localised regional style of barrows produced in the vicinity of the
River Medway. The long barrows built in this area are now known as the
Medway Megaliths. Chestnuts Long Barrow lies near to both
Addington Long Barrow and
Coldrum Long Barrow on the western side of the river. Two further surviving long barrows,
Kit's Coty House and
Little Kit's Coty House, as well as the destroyed
Smythe's Megalith and possible survivals as the
Coffin Stone and
White Horse Stone, are on the eastern side of the Medway.
The long barrow was built on land previously inhabited in the
Mesolithic period. It consisted of a sub-rectangular earthen
tumulus, estimated to have been 15 metres (50 feet) in length, with a chamber built from
sarsenmegaliths on its eastern end. Both
inhumed and
cremated human remains were placed within this chamber during the Neolithic period, representing at least nine or ten individuals. These remains were found alongside
pottery sherds, stone arrow heads, and a clay pendant. In the
4th centuryAD, a
Romano-British hut was erected next to the long barrow. In the 12th or 13th century, the chamber was dug into and heavily damaged, either by treasure hunters or
iconoclastic Christians. The mound gradually eroded and was completely gone by the twentieth century, leaving only the ruined stone chamber. The ruin attracted the interest of
antiquarians in the 18th and 19th centuries, while
archaeological excavation took place in 1957, followed by limited
reconstruction. The site is on privately owned land. (Full article...)
The
tetrastyleprostyle building has two doors that connect the
pronaos to a square
cella. To the back of the temple lie the remains of the
adyton where images of the deity once stood. The ancient temple functioned as an
aedes, the dwelling place of the
deity. The temple of Bziza was converted into a
church and underwent architectural modification during two phases of Christianization; in the Early
Byzantine period and later in the
Middle Ages. The church, colloquially known until modern times as the Lady of the Pillars, fell into disrepair. Despite the church's condition, Christian devotion was still maintained in the nineteenth century in one of the temple's
niches. The temple of Bziza is featured on multiple stamps issued by the Lebanese state. (Full article...)
The dynasty is divided into
two periods: Northern Song and Southern Song. During the Northern Song (
Chinese: 北宋; 960–1127), the capital was in the northern city of Bianjing (now
Kaifeng) and the dynasty controlled most of what is now
Eastern China. The
Southern Song (
Chinese: 南宋; 1127–1279) refers to the period after the Song lost control of its northern half to the
Jurchen-led
Jin dynasty in the
Jin–Song Wars. At that time, the Song court retreated south of the
Yangtze and established its capital at
Lin'an (now
Hangzhou). Although the Song dynasty had lost control of the traditional Chinese heartlands around the
Yellow River, the Southern Song Empire contained a large population and productive agricultural land, sustaining a robust economy. In 1234, the Jin dynasty was
conquered by the Mongols, who took control of northern China, maintaining uneasy relations with the Southern Song.
Möngke Khan, the fourth
Great Khan of the
Mongol Empire, died in 1259 while besieging the mountain castle
Diaoyucheng,
Chongqing. His younger brother
Kublai Khan was proclaimed the new Great Khan and in 1271 founded the Yuan dynasty. After two decades of sporadic warfare, Kublai Khan's armies
conquered the Song dynasty in 1279 after defeating the Southern Song in the
Battle of Yamen, and reunited China under the Yuan dynasty.
Technology, science, philosophy, mathematics, and
engineering flourished during the Song era. The Song dynasty was the first in world history to issue
banknotes or true paper money and the first Chinese government to establish
a permanent standing navy. This dynasty saw the first surviving records of the chemical formula for
gunpowder, the invention of
gunpowder weapons such as
fire arrows,
bombs, and the
fire lance. It also saw the first discernment of
true north using a
compass, first recorded description of the
pound lock, and improved designs of
astronomical clocks. Economically, the Song dynasty was unparalleled with a
gross domestic product three times larger than that of Europe during the 12th century. China's population doubled in size between the 10th and 11th centuries. This growth was made possible by expanded
rice cultivation, use of early-ripening rice from Southeast and South Asia, and production of widespread food surpluses. The Northern Song census recorded 20 million households, double of the
Han and
Tang dynasties. It is estimated that the Northern Song had a population of 90 million people, and 200 million by the time of the
Ming dynasty. This dramatic increase of population fomented an
economic revolution in pre-modern China.
Takalik Abaj is representative of the first blossoming of Maya culture that had occurred by about 400 BC. The site includes a Maya royal tomb and examples of
Maya hieroglyphic inscriptions that are among the earliest from the Maya region. Excavation is continuing at the site; the monumental
architecture and persistent tradition of sculpture in a variety of styles suggest the site was of some importance.
Finds from the site indicate contact with the distant metropolis of
Teotihuacan in the
Valley of Mexico and imply that Takalik Abaj was conquered by it or its allies. Takalik Abaj was linked to long-distance
Maya trade routes that shifted over time but allowed the city to participate in a trade network that included the
Guatemalan highlands and the Pacific coastal plain from
Mexico to
El Salvador.
Takalik Abaj was a sizeable city with the principal
architecture clustered into four main groups spread across nine terraces. While some of these were natural features, others were artificial constructions requiring an enormous investment in labor and materials. The site featured a sophisticated water drainage system and a wealth of sculptured monuments. (Full article...)
As it might be recognised today, Chat Moss is thought to be about 7,000 years old, but peat development seems to have begun there with the ending of the last
ice age, about 10,000 years ago. The depth of peat ranges from 24 to 30 feet (7 to 9 m). A great deal of
reclamation work has been carried out, particularly during the 19th century, but a large-scale network of drainage channels is still required to keep the land from reverting to bog. In 1958 workers extracting peat discovered the severed head of what is believed to be a
Romano-BritishCelt, possibly a sacrificial victim, in the eastern part of the bog near
Worsley.
Born to a wealthy middle-class English family in
Calcutta, British India, Murray divided her youth between India, Britain, and Germany, training as both a nurse and a social worker. Moving to London, in 1894 she began studying Egyptology at UCL, developing a friendship with department head
Flinders Petrie, who encouraged her early academic publications and appointed her junior lecturer in 1898. In 1902–03, she took part in Petrie's
excavations at
Abydos, Egypt, there discovering the
Osireion temple and the following season investigated the
Saqqara cemetery, both of which established her reputation in Egyptology. Supplementing her UCL wage by giving public classes and lectures at the
British Museum and
Manchester Museum, it was at the latter in 1908 that she led the unwrapping of Khnum-nakht, one of the
mummies recovered from the
Tomb of two Brothers – the first time that a woman had publicly unwrapped a mummy. Recognising that British
Egyptomania reflected the existence of a widespread public interest in
Ancient Egypt, Murray wrote several books on Egyptology targeted at a general audience.
Murray also became closely involved in the
first-wave feminist movement, joining the
Women's Social and Political Union and devoting much time to improving women's status at UCL. Unable to return to Egypt due to the
First World War, she focused her research on the
witch-cult hypothesis, the theory that the
witch trials of Early Modern Christendom were an attempt to extinguish a surviving pre-Christian,
pagan religion devoted to a
Horned God. Although later academically discredited, the theory gained widespread attention and proved a significant influence on the emerging
new religious movement of
Wicca. From 1921 to 1931, she undertook excavations of prehistoric sites on
Malta and
Menorca and developed her interest in folkloristics. Awarded an honorary doctorate in 1927, she was appointed assistant professor in 1928 and retired from UCL in 1935. That year she visited Palestine to aid Petrie's excavation of
Tall al-Ajjul and in 1937 she led a small excavation at
Petra in Jordan. Taking on the presidency of the Folklore Society in later life, she lectured at such institutions as the
University of Cambridge and
City Literary Institute, and continued to publish in an independent capacity until her death.
Murray's work in Egyptology and archaeology was widely acclaimed and earned her the nickname of "The Grand Old Woman of Egyptology", although after her death many of her contributions to the field were overshadowed by those of Petrie. Conversely, Murray's work in folkloristics and the history of witchcraft has been academically discredited and her methods in these areas heavily criticised. The influence of her witch-cult theory in both religion and literature has been examined by various scholars, and she herself has been dubbed the "Grandmother of Wicca". (Full article...)
Image 16
The
tomb of Tutankhamun was discovered in the
Valley of the Kings in 1922 by excavators led by the
EgyptologistHoward Carter, more than 3,300 years after Tutankhamun's death and burial. Whereas the tombs of most
pharaohs were plundered by
graverobbers in ancient times, Tutankhamun's tomb was hidden by debris for most of its existence and therefore not extensively robbed. It thus became the first known largely intact royal burial from
ancient Egypt.
The tomb was opened beginning on 4 November 1922 during an excavation by Carter and his patron,
the 5th Earl of Carnarvon. The burial consisted of more than five thousand objects, many of which were in a highly fragile state, so conserving the burial goods for removal from the tomb required an unprecedented effort. The opulence of the burial goods inspired a media frenzy and popularised ancient Egyptian-inspired designs with the Western public. To the Egyptians, who had recently become partially independent of
British rule, the tomb became a symbol of national pride, strengthening
Pharaonism, a nationalist ideology that emphasised modern Egypt's ties to the ancient civilisation, and creating friction between Egyptians and the British-led excavation team. The publicity surrounding the excavation intensified when Carnarvon died of an infection, giving rise to speculation that his death and other misfortunes connected with the tomb were the result of
an ancient curse.
After Lord Carnarvon's death, tensions arose between Carter and the Egyptian government over who should control access to the tomb. In early 1924, Carter stopped work in protest, beginning a dispute that lasted until the end of the year. Under the agreement that resolved the dispute, the artefacts from the tomb would not be divided between the government and the dig's sponsors, as was standard practice in previous Egyptological digs, and most of the tomb's contents went to the
Egyptian Museum in
Cairo. In later seasons media attention waned, apart from coverage of the removal of
Tutankhamun's mummy from its coffin in 1925. The last two chambers of the tomb were cleared from 1926 to 1930, and the last of the burial goods were conserved and shipped to Cairo in 1932.
The tomb's discovery did not reveal as much about the history of Tutankhamun's time as Egyptologists had initially hoped, but it did establish the length of his reign and gave clues about the end of the
Amarna Period, the era of radical innovation that preceded his reign. It was more informative about the
material culture of Tutankhamun's time, demonstrating what a complete royal burial was like and providing evidence about the lifestyles of wealthy Egyptians and the behaviour of ancient tomb robbers. The interest generated by the find stimulated efforts to train Egyptians in Egyptology. Since the discovery, the Egyptian government has capitalised on its enduring fame by using
exhibitions of the burial goods for purposes of fundraising and diplomacy, and Tutankhamun has become a symbol of ancient Egypt itself. (Full article...)
The method was developed in the late 1940s at the
University of Chicago by
Willard Libby. It is based on the fact that radiocarbon (14 C) is constantly being created in the
Earth's atmosphere by the interaction of
cosmic rays with atmospheric
nitrogen. The resulting 14 C combines with atmospheric
oxygen to form radioactive
carbon dioxide, which is incorporated into plants by
photosynthesis; animals then acquire 14 C by eating the plants. When the animal or plant dies, it stops exchanging carbon with its environment, and thereafter the amount of 14 C it contains begins to decrease as the 14 C undergoes
radioactive decay. Measuring the proportion of 14 C in a sample from a dead plant or animal, such as a piece of wood or a fragment of bone, provides information that can be used to calculate when the animal or plant died. The older a sample is, the less 14 C there is to be detected, and because the
half-life of 14 C (the period of time after which half of a given sample will have decayed) is about 5,730 years, the oldest dates that can be reliably measured by this process date to approximately 50,000 years ago (in this interval about 99.8% of the 14 C will have decayed), although special preparation methods occasionally make an accurate analysis of older samples possible. In 1960, Libby received the
Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work.
Research has been ongoing since the 1960s to determine what the proportion of 14 C in the atmosphere has been over the past 50,000 years. The resulting data, in the form of a
calibration curve, is now used to convert a given measurement of radiocarbon in a sample into an estimate of the sample's calendar age. Other corrections must be made to account for the proportion of 14 C in different types of organisms (fractionation), and the varying levels of 14 C throughout the
biosphere (reservoir effects). Additional complications come from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, and from the above-ground nuclear tests performed in the 1950s and 1960s.
Because the time it takes to convert biological materials to
fossil fuels is substantially longer than the time it takes for its 14 C to decay below detectable levels, fossil fuels contain almost no 14 C. As a result, beginning in the late 19th century, there was a noticeable drop in the proportion of 14 C in the atmosphere as the carbon dioxide generated from burning fossil fuels began to accumulate. Conversely,
nuclear testing increased the amount of 14 C in the atmosphere, which reached a maximum in about 1965 of almost double the amount present in the atmosphere prior to nuclear testing.
Measurement of radiocarbon was originally done with beta-counting devices, which counted the amount of
beta radiation emitted by decaying 14 C atoms in a sample. More recently,
accelerator mass spectrometry has become the method of choice; it counts all the 14 C atoms in the sample and not just the few that happen to decay during the measurements; it can therefore be used with much smaller samples (as small as individual plant seeds), and gives results much more quickly. The development of radiocarbon dating has had a profound impact on
archaeology. In addition to permitting more accurate dating within archaeological sites than previous methods, it allows comparison of dates of events across great distances. Histories of archaeology often refer to its impact as the "radiocarbon revolution". Radiocarbon dating has allowed key transitions in prehistory to be dated, such as the end of the
last ice age, and the beginning of the
Neolithic and
Bronze Age in different regions. (Full article...)
Image 18
Nico Ditch is a six-mile (9.7 km) long linear
earthwork between
Ashton-under-Lyne and
Stretford in Greater Manchester, England. It was dug as a defensive fortification, or possibly a boundary marker, between the 5th and 11th century.
The ditch is still visible in short sections, such as a 330-yard (300 m) stretch in
Denton Golf Course. For the parts which survived, the ditch is 4–5 yards (3.7–4.6 m) wide and up to 5 feet (1.5 m) deep. Part of the earthwork is protected as a
Scheduled Ancient Monument. (Full article...)
Image 19
Volubilis (Latin pronunciation:[wɔˈɫuːbɪlɪs];
Arabic: وليلي,
romanized: walīlī;
Berber languages: ⵡⵍⵉⵍⵉ, romanized: wlili) is a partly-excavated Berber-Roman city in
Morocco situated near the city of
Meknes that may have been the capital of the
Kingdom of Mauretania, at least from the time of King
Juba II. Before Volubilis, the capital of the kingdom may have been at Gilda.
Built in a fertile agricultural area, it developed from the 3rd century BC onward as a Berber, then proto-
Carthaginian, settlement before being the capital of the kingdom of Mauretania. It grew rapidly under Roman rule from the 1st century AD onward and expanded to cover about 42 hectares (100 acres) with a 2.6 km (1.6 mi) circuit of walls. The city gained a number of major public buildings in the 2nd century, including a
basilica,
temple and
triumphal arch. Its prosperity, which was derived principally from
olive growing, prompted the construction of many fine town-houses with large
mosaic floors.
The city fell to local tribes around 285 and was never retaken by Rome because of its remoteness and indefensibility on the south-western border of the
Roman Empire. It continued to be inhabited for at least another 700 years, first as a Latinised Christian community, then as an early Islamic settlement. In the late 8th century it became the seat of
Idris ibn Abdallah, the founder of the
Idrisid dynasty of Morocco. By the 11th century Volubilis had been abandoned after the seat of power was relocated to
Fes. Much of the local population was transferred to the new town of
Moulay Idriss Zerhoun, about 5 km (3.1 mi) from Volubilis.
The ruins remained substantially intact until they were
devastated by an earthquake in the mid-18th century and subsequently looted by Moroccan rulers seeking stone for building Meknes. It was not until the latter part of the 19th century that the site was definitively identified as that of the ancient city of Volubilis. During and after the period of French rule over Morocco, about half of the site was excavated, revealing many fine mosaics, and some of the more prominent public buildings and high-status houses were restored or reconstructed. Today it is a
UNESCOWorld Heritage Site, listed for being "an exceptionally well preserved example of a large Roman colonial town on the fringes of the Empire". (Full article...)
Probably constructed in the
4th millennium BCE, during
Britain's Early Neolithic period, it was discovered in 1822, at which point it was dismantled. Built out of earth and at least five local
sarsenmegaliths, the long barrow consisted of a roughly rectangular earthen
tumulus with a stone chamber in its eastern end. Human remains were deposited into this chamber.
Archaeologists have established that the monument was built by
pastoralist communities shortly after the introduction of
agriculture to Britain from continental Europe. Although representing part of an architectural tradition of long barrow building widespread across Neolithic Europe, Smythe's Megalith belonged to a localised regional variant produced in the vicinity of the
River Medway, now known as the
Medway Megaliths.
The site may have been ransacked during the Middle Ages, as other Medway Megaliths were. By the early 19th century it was buried beneath soil, largely due to millennia of
hillwash coming down from the adjacent
Blue Bell Hill. In 1822, it was discovered by farm labourers ploughing the land; the local
antiquarians Clement Smythe and Thomas Charles were called in to examine it. Shortly after, the labourers pulled away the stones and dispersed most of the human remains, destroying the monument. Smythe and Charles produced, but did not publish, reports on their findings, and these have been discussed by archaeologists since the mid-20th century. (Full article...)
The Nine Stones is part of a tradition of stone circle construction that spread through much of Great Britain, Ireland, and Brittany between 3,300 and 900
BCE, during the
Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age. The stone circle tradition was accompanied by the construction of timber circles and earthen
henges, reflecting a growing emphasis on circular monuments. The purpose of such rings is unknown, although archaeologists speculate that the stones represented
supernatural entities for the circle's builders. At least nine of these stone circles are known to have been constructed near modern Dorset. They are smaller than those found elsewhere in Great Britain and are typically built from
sarsen stone.
Located in the bottom of a narrow valley, the Nine Stones circle has a diameter of 9.1 by 7.8 metres (29 feet 10 inches by 25 feet 7 inches). It consists of nine irregularly spaced sarsen
megaliths, with a small opening on its northern side. Two of the stones on the northwestern side of the monument are considerably larger than the other seven. This architectural feature has parallels with various stone circles in southwestern Scotland, and was potentially a deliberate choice of the circle's builders, to whom it may have had symbolic meaning.
Antiquarians like
John Aubrey and
William Stukeley first took an interest in the site during the eighteenth century. It later received archaeological attention, although it has not been
excavated. Local
folklore has grown up around the circle, associating it with
the Devil and with children petrified into rock. The Nine Stones are regarded as a
sacred site by local
Druids, who perform religious ceremonies there. The circle is adjacent to the
A35 road and encircled by trees. The site is owned by
English Heritage and is open without charge to visitors. (Full article...)
The Coffin Stone is a rectangular slab lying flat that measures 4.42 metres (14 ft 6 in) in length, 2.59 metres (8 ft 6 in) in breadth, and about 0.61 metres (2 ft) in width. Two smaller stones lie nearby and another large slab is now located atop it. In the 1830s it was reported that local farmers found human bones near the stone. An
archaeological excavation of the site led by Paul Garwood took place in 2008–09; it found that the megalith was placed in its present location only in the 15th or 16th centuries. The archaeologists found no evidence of a chambered long barrow at the location, and suggested that the Coffin Stone might once have stood upright in the vicinity. (Full article...)
Image 23
Quiriguá (Spanish pronunciation:[kiɾiˈɣwa]) is an ancient
Mayaarchaeological site in the
department of
Izabal in south-eastern
Guatemala. It is a medium-sized site covering approximately 3 square kilometres (1.2 sq mi) along the lower
Motagua River, with the ceremonial center about 1 km (0.6 mi) from the north bank. During the
Maya Classic Period (AD 200–900), Quiriguá was situated at the juncture of several important
trade routes. The site was occupied by 200, construction on the
acropolis had begun by about 550, and an explosion of grander construction started in the 8th century. All construction had halted by about 850, except for a brief period of reoccupation in the Early
Postclassic (c. 900 – c. 1200). Quiriguá shares its architectural and sculptural styles with the nearby Classic Period city of
Copán, with whose history it is closely entwined.
Quiriguá's rapid expansion in the 8th century was tied to king
K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat's military victory over Copán in 738. When the greatest king of Copán,
Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil or "18-Rabbit", was defeated, he was captured and then sacrificed in the Great Plaza at Quiriguá. Before this, Quiriguá had been a
vassal state of Copán, but it maintained its independence afterwards. The ceremonial
architecture at Quiriguá is quite modest, but the site's importance lies in its wealth of sculpture, including the tallest stone
monumental sculpture ever erected in the
New World. Because of its historical importance, the site of Quiriguá was inscribed on the
UNESCOWorld Heritage List in 1981. (Full article...)
Born in
Bombay,
British India, to a wealthy middle-class
Scottish family, Crawford moved to England as an infant and was raised by his aunts in London and
Hampshire. He studied
geography at
Keble College, Oxford, and worked briefly in that field before devoting himself professionally to archaeology. Employed by the philanthropist
Henry Wellcome, Crawford oversaw the
excavation of Abu Geili in Sudan before returning to England shortly before the
First World War. During the conflict he served in both the
London Scottish Regiment and the
Royal Flying Corps, where he was involved in ground and aerial reconnaissance along the
Western Front. After an injury forced a period of convalescence in England, he returned to the Western Front, where he was captured by the German Army in 1918 and held as a
prisoner of war until the end of the conflict.
In 1920, Crawford was employed by the Ordnance Survey, touring Britain to plot the location of archaeological sites, and in the process identified several that were previously unknown. Increasingly interested in aerial archaeology, he used
Royal Air Force photographs to identify the extent of the
Stonehenge Avenue, excavating it in 1923. With the archaeologist
Alexander Keiller, he conducted an aerial survey of many counties in southern England and raised the finances to secure the land around
Stonehenge for
The National Trust. In 1927, he established the scholarly journal Antiquity, which contained contributions from many of Britain's most prominent archaeologists, and in 1939 he served as president of
The Prehistoric Society. An
internationalist and
socialist, he came under the influence of
Marxism and for a time became a
Soviet sympathiser. During the
Second World War he worked with the
National Buildings Record, photographically documenting
Southampton. After retiring in 1946, he refocused his attention on Sudanese archaeology and wrote several further books prior to his death.
Friends and colleagues remembered Crawford as a cantankerous and irritable individual. His contributions to British archaeology, including in Antiquity and aerial archaeology, have been widely acclaimed; some have referred to him as one of the great pioneering figures in the field. His photographic archive remained of use to archaeologists into the 21st century. A biography of Crawford by Kitty Hauser was published in 2008. (Full article...)
Archaeologists have established that the monument was built by
pastoralist communities shortly after the introduction of
agriculture to Britain from continental Europe. Part of an architectural tradition of long barrow building that was widespread across Neolithic Europe, the Coldrum Stones belong to a localised regional variant of barrows produced in the vicinity of the
River Medway, now known as the
Medway Megaliths. Of these, it is in the best surviving condition. It lies near to both
Addington Long Barrow and
Chestnuts Long Barrow on the western side of the river. Two further surviving long barrows,
Kit's Coty House and
Little Kit's Coty House, as well as possible survivals such as the
Coffin Stone and
White Horse Stone, are located on the Medway's eastern side.
Built out of earth and around fifty local
sarsen-stone
megaliths, the long barrow consisted of a sub-rectangular earthen
tumulus enclosed by kerb-stones. Within the eastern end of the tumulus was a stone chamber, into which human remains were deposited on at least two separate occasions during the Early Neolithic.
Osteoarchaeological analysis of these remains has shown them to be those of at least seventeen individuals, a mixture of men, women, and children. At least one of the bodies had been dismembered before burial, potentially reflecting a funerary tradition of
excarnation and
secondary burial. As with other barrows, Coldrum has been interpreted as a tomb to house the remains of the dead, perhaps as part of a belief system involving
ancestor veneration, although archaeologists have suggested that it may also have had further religious, ritual, and cultural connotations and uses.
After the Early Neolithic, the long barrow fell into a state of ruined dilapidation, perhaps experiencing deliberate destruction in the Late Medieval period, either by
Christian iconoclasts or treasure hunters. In local
folklore, the site became associated with the burial of a prince and the
countless stones motif. The ruin attracted the interest of
antiquarians in the 19th century, while
archaeological excavation took place in the early 20th. In 1926, ownership was transferred to heritage charity the
National Trust. Open without charge to visitors all year around, the stones are the site of a
rag tree, a
May Daymorris dance, and various
modern Pagan rituals. (Full article...)
Being centrally located on the Australian mainland, Adelaide forms a strategic transport hub for east–west and north–south routes. The city itself has a metropolitan public transport system managed by and known as the
Adelaide Metro. The Adelaide Metro consists of a contracted bus system including the
O-Bahn Busway,
6 commuter rail lines (diesel and electric), and a small tram network operating between inner suburb
Hindmarsh, the city centre, and seaside
Glenelg. Tramways were largely dismantled in the 1950s, but saw a revival in the 2010s with upgrades and extensions.
Road transport in Adelaide has historically been easier than many of the other Australian cities, with a well-defined city layout and wide multiple-lane roads from the beginning of its development. Adelaide was known as a "twenty-minute city", with commuters having been able to travel from metropolitan outskirts to the city proper in roughly twenty minutes. However, such arterial roads often experience traffic congestion as the city grows.
The Adelaide metropolitan area has one freeway and four expressways. In order of construction, they are:
The
South Eastern Freeway (M1), connects the south-east corner of the Adelaide Plain to the Adelaide Hills and beyond to
Murray Bridge and
Tailem Bend, where it then continues as National Highway 1 south-east to Melbourne.
The
Southern Expressway (M2), connecting the outer southern suburbs with the inner southern suburbs and the city centre. It duplicates the route of
South Road.
The
North-South Motorway (M2), is an ongoing major project that will become the major north–south corridor, replacing most of what is now
South Road, connecting the
Southern Expressway and the
Northern Expressway via a motorway with no traffic lights. As of 2020 the motorway's northern half is complete (save for a small link under construction at
Croydon Park), connecting the Northern Expressway to Adelaide's inner north-west; the section running through Adelaide's inner west and inner south-west is awaiting funding.
The
Port River Expressway (A9), connects Port Adelaide and
Outer Harbor to Port Wakefield Road at the northern "entrance" to the metropolitan area.
The
Northern Expressway (Max Fatchen Expressway) (M2), is the northern suburbs bypass route connecting the Sturt Highway (National Highway 20) via the
Gawler Bypass to Port Wakefield Road at a point a few kilometres north of the Port River Expressway connection.
The
Northern Connector, completed in 2020, links the North South Motorway to the Northern Expressway.
Perth is served by
Perth Airport in the city's east for regional, domestic and international flights and
Jandakot Airport in the city's southern suburbs for general aviation and charter flights.
Perth has a road network with three freeways—
Mitchell,
Kwinana and
Graham Farmer—and nine metropolitan highways. The
Northbridge Tunnel, part of the Graham Farmer Freeway, is the only significant road tunnel in Perth.
Rail freight terminates at the
Kewdale Rail Terminal, 15 km (9 mi) south-east of the city centre.
Perth's main container and passenger port is at Fremantle, 19 km (12 mi) south west at the mouth of the Swan River. The
Fremantle Outer Harbour at
Cockburn Sound is one of Australia's major bulk cargo ports. (Full article...)
Image 3
Obtaining sufficient fresh water was difficult during early colonial times. A catchment called the
Tank Stream sourced water from what is now the CBD but was little more than an open sewer by the end of the 1700s. The Botany Swamps Scheme was one of several ventures during the mid-1800s that saw the construction of wells, tunnels, steam pumping stations, and small dams to service Sydney's growing population.
The
Upper Nepean Scheme came into operation in 1886. It transports water 100 km (62 mi) from the
Nepean,
Cataract, and
Cordeaux rivers and continues to service about 15% of Sydney's water needs. Dams were built on these three rivers between 1907 and 1935. In 1977 the
Shoalhaven Scheme brought several more dams into service.
Obtaining sufficient fresh water was difficult during early colonial times. A catchment called the
Tank Stream sourced water from what is now the CBD but was little more than an open sewer by the end of the 1700s. The Botany Swamps Scheme was one of several ventures during the mid-1800s that saw the construction of wells, tunnels, steam pumping stations, and small dams to service Sydney's growing population.
The
Upper Nepean Scheme came into operation in 1886. It transports water 100 km (62 mi) from the
Nepean,
Cataract, and
Cordeaux rivers and continues to service about 15% of Sydney's water needs. Dams were built on these three rivers between 1907 and 1935. In 1977 the
Shoalhaven Scheme brought several more dams into service.
Being centrally located on the Australian mainland, Adelaide forms a strategic transport hub for east–west and north–south routes. The city itself has a metropolitan public transport system managed by and known as the
Adelaide Metro. The Adelaide Metro consists of a contracted bus system including the
O-Bahn Busway,
6 commuter rail lines (diesel and electric), and a small tram network operating between inner suburb
Hindmarsh, the city centre, and seaside
Glenelg. Tramways were largely dismantled in the 1950s, but saw a revival in the 2010s with upgrades and extensions.
Road transport in Adelaide has historically been easier than many of the other Australian cities, with a well-defined city layout and wide multiple-lane roads from the beginning of its development. Adelaide was known as a "twenty-minute city", with commuters having been able to travel from metropolitan outskirts to the city proper in roughly twenty minutes. However, such arterial roads often experience traffic congestion as the city grows.
The Adelaide metropolitan area has one freeway and four expressways. In order of construction, they are:
The
South Eastern Freeway (M1), connects the south-east corner of the Adelaide Plain to the Adelaide Hills and beyond to
Murray Bridge and
Tailem Bend, where it then continues as National Highway 1 south-east to Melbourne.
The
Southern Expressway (M2), connecting the outer southern suburbs with the inner southern suburbs and the city centre. It duplicates the route of
South Road.
The
North-South Motorway (M2), is an ongoing major project that will become the major north–south corridor, replacing most of what is now
South Road, connecting the
Southern Expressway and the
Northern Expressway via a motorway with no traffic lights. As of 2020 the motorway's northern half is complete (save for a small link under construction at
Croydon Park), connecting the Northern Expressway to Adelaide's inner north-west; the section running through Adelaide's inner west and inner south-west is awaiting funding.
The
Port River Expressway (A9), connects Port Adelaide and
Outer Harbor to Port Wakefield Road at the northern "entrance" to the metropolitan area.
The
Northern Expressway (Max Fatchen Expressway) (M2), is the northern suburbs bypass route connecting the Sturt Highway (National Highway 20) via the
Gawler Bypass to Port Wakefield Road at a point a few kilometres north of the Port River Expressway connection.
The
Northern Connector, completed in 2020, links the North South Motorway to the Northern Expressway.
Perth is served by
Perth Airport in the city's east for regional, domestic and international flights and
Jandakot Airport in the city's southern suburbs for general aviation and charter flights.
Perth has a road network with three freeways—
Mitchell,
Kwinana and
Graham Farmer—and nine metropolitan highways. The
Northbridge Tunnel, part of the Graham Farmer Freeway, is the only significant road tunnel in Perth.
Rail freight terminates at the
Kewdale Rail Terminal, 15 km (9 mi) south-east of the city centre.
Perth's main container and passenger port is at Fremantle, 19 km (12 mi) south west at the mouth of the Swan River. The
Fremantle Outer Harbour at
Cockburn Sound is one of Australia's major bulk cargo ports. (Full article...)