Historic Ladakh consists of a number of distinct areas (mainly under Indian rule), including the fairly populous main Indus valley, the more remote
Zanskar (in the south) and
Nubra valleys (to the north over
Khardung La in the Ladakh mountain range, a high motorable pass at 5,359 metres (17,582 ft)), the almost deserted
Aksai Chin (under Chinese rule) and the predominantly
Shi'ite Muslim
Kargil and
Suru valley areas in the west (Kargil being the second most important town in Ladakh). Historically populated by the Ladakhi people, continued immigration and preferential treatment to Kashmiris by the J&K government have led to demographic changes in the Ladakh region.
The Baltistan and
Skardu area, under Pakistani rule and entirely Muslim, used to be included in what is geographically referred to as Ladakh. Before partition, Baltistan was one of the districts of Ladakh. Skardo was the winter capital of Ladakh while Leh was the summer capital. People of Baltistan and Ladakh speak very similar languages closely related to Tibetan.
Naked barley, normal barley and wheat are the staple crops all over Ladakh, along with mustard (for oil), lentils and other pulses, and vegetables. The extreme limit of cultivation is at Korzok near the Tso Moriri lake, at 4560 m, said to be among the highest fields in the world.
The mountain ranges in this region were formed over a period of 45 million years by the folding of the
Indian Plate into the stationary landmass of Asia.
Himalayas were formed from the base material of the Indian plate.[1][2]
Mountain ranges are (from north to south, then east to west):
Karakoram range: two importance of ranges are Changchenmo Range and Pangong Range as below.[3]
The Ladakh Range has no major peaks; its average height is a little less than 6000 metres, and few of its passes are less than 5000 m. Within Ladakh it forms the northern boundary wall of the Indus valley, though when the river enters present-day Indian-controlled Ladakh at
Demchok, some 250 km south-east of Leh, it is actually flowing along the foot of the northern flank of these granite mountains, which it crosses by a great gorge close to its confluence with the Hanle River.
The Pangong Range runs parallel to the Ladakh range for some 100 km northwest from
Chushul, and extends to the south along the southern shore of the
Panggong Lake. It is divided from the main Ladakh range by the Tangtse River. Its highest range is 6700 m, and the northern slopes are heavily glaciated.
A third branch called the Kailash Range issues southeast of the Pangong Range and continues till Mount
Kailas in
Ngari (in Tibet). It forms the eastern watershed of the Indus River south of Mount Sajum.
Zanskar range
The
Zanskar Range consists of layers of sediment from the ocean floor, and the
Ladakh Range of
granite was born of the immense heat generated by the friction between the two plates. In Ladakh, the suture zone between the continental masses runs a little to the south of the
Indus Valley. The drift continues and is the cause of the frequent earthquakes in the Himalayan region. Crossing the Himalayas by the dip of the
Zoji-la, the crest-line of the range remains at a relatively modest level, the highest peaks near the pass being little more than 5000–5500 m above sea level. South-east of Zoji-la the scale increases, reaching a climax in the mighty massif of
Nun-Kun, with two summits over 7000 m.
Rivers valleys
The enormous mass of the Himalayas creates a
rain shadow, denying entry to the moisture-laden clouds of the Indian
monsoon. Ladakh is thus a high altitude desert. The main source of water is the winter snowfall on the mountains. The regions on the north flank of the Himalayas—Dras, the Suru valley and Zanskar—experience heavy snowfall and remain virtually cut off from the rest of the country for several months in the year. Summers are short, although long enough to grow crops. The proportion of oxygen is less than in many other places at a comparable altitude because of lack of vegetation. There is little moisture to temper the effects of rarefied air.
Suru and
Zanskar valleys form a great trough at the foot of the northern, heavily glaciated flank of the Himalayas, while opposite rise the mountains of the
Zanskar range.
Karakash River: originates in China-held and India-claimed area of Depsang Plains of Aksai Chin. Flows entirely in China-held area.
Indus River: All of India-held Ladakh lies in the basin of Indus River. Indus River is the backbone of Ladakh. All the major places historically and currently such as
Shey,
Leh,
Basgo, and
Tingmosgang are situated close to the river. Many places along the course have witnessed the
Sino-Indian border dispute. Major tributes of Indus are as follows (from east to west):
Chibra Stream: in Demchok sector, flows south to north to confluence with Indus River near
Lagankhel on south bank.
Koyul Lungpa River: runs from
Chang La in south to northwest past Koyul to its confluence with Indus near
Fukche ALG on south bank.
Chushul Eastern Stream: flows west to east from
Chushul heights to confluence with Indus River at Loma village near Hanle on west bank.
Hanle River: originates near the
Imis La pass (5,290m or 17,355 ft high
saddle, south of
Ukdungle Indian Military base, Zarsar & Tradole peak) on the India-Tibet border and joins the Indus river near Nowi and Loma north of
Hanle River[13] close to the town of
Nyoma.
Kharnak River: from
Pang & Kharnak to Sangtha & Kharna, northeastern flank of Zanskar range.
Shyok River: It originates near
Karakoram Pass north of
Daulat Beg Oldie (DBO). It then collects 5 important tributaries from DBO to its confluence with Changchenmo, each of which originates from ridges & peaks of
Karakoram range in the China-held disputed
Aksai Chin area along the
LAC and confluence with Shyok in the India-held area. From north to south, first tributary is
Chip Chap River (inverted C-shaped route from east of
Tianwendian in Aksai Chin to DBO, Chapo, Gapshan camp,
Saser La, ancient Sultan Chusku caravan camp &
Colonel Chewang Rinchen Bridge on
DSDBO Road), second tributary of Shyok is
Burtsa Nala (its tributaries are
Depsang Nala with confluence at
Burtsa Patrol Base,
Raki Nala with confluence at India-held
Y-junction,
Jeong Nala with confluence at
Burtsa Yogma,
Murgo Nala or Murgo Chu with confluence at Murgo, itself confluences with Shyok River at Sultan Chusku camp &
Colonel Chewang Rinchen Bridge or CCR Bridge), third tributary of Shyok is
Jeong Nala (also called Jiwan Nala or Nacho Chu & Xidagou, itself a tributary of Burtsa Nala), fourth tributary of Shyok is
Galwan River, and the fifth tributary of Shyok is
Chang Chenmo River (its tributary
Kugrang River flows within India-held area and confluences at India-held
Hot Springs or Kyam & Kayam, and
Changlung River tributary of Kugrang River flows within China-held Indian-claim area and confluences at India-held
Gogra pasture). Further downstream, the Shyok River confluences with Chushul Stream at
Shyok village, then with
Nubra River near
Diskit, and finally falls into the Indus River in
Chorbat Valley in Pakistan held area. At Saser La (on
Sasoma–Saser La Road), Shyok River's flow splits into a weaker NW-SE flowing stream which flows parallel to and north of the main flow of Shyok &
Murgo Ridge, this weaker stream from Saser La to
Murgo is called the Murgo Nala. Shyok River and Murgo Nala flowing NW-SE parallel to each other on the west side of "DSDBO Road" meet the N-S flowing Burtsa Nala at Murgo & "CCR Bridge" respectively along the DSDBO Road. Flow along the "DSDBO Road", downstream of "CCR Bridge" is called the Shyok River, its northern upstream flow from India's
Burtsa Patrol Base is called the Burtsa Nala and its N-S flowing tributary above Burtsa Patrol Base is called
Depsang Nala. The Burtsa Nala originates in and flows E-W within the China-held India-claimed D-shaped
Depsang Bulge (Burtsa Bulge) collecting several small streams within the bulge (the entire Depsang Bulge lies immediate east of "DSDBO Road" and within the Depsang Bulge India controls the area till Y-junction), from the Indian Military Camp at Y-junction it flows NW-SW to Burtsa Patrol Base where it confluences with Depsang Nala and turns south flowing along "DSDBO Road" via Burtsa Yogma (confluence with Jiwan Nala) & Murgo (confluence with Murgo Nala) to its confluence with Shyok River at CCR Bridge. From Y-junction confluence,
Reki Nala flows from North and provide access to China-held part of Aksai Chin and a decond stream flowing south from Y-junction provides access to the origin of Jiwan Nala via a pass. The region comprising the valley of Shyok and
Nubra Rivers is known as Nubra. The Karakoram Range in Ladakh is not as mighty as in
Baltistan. The massifs to the north and east of the Nubra-Siachen valley include the Apsarasas group (highest point 7245 m), the Rimo group (highest point 7385 m) and the Teram Kangri group (highest point 7464 m), together with Mamostong Kangri (7526 m) and Singhi Kangri (7202 m.) North of the Karakoram lie the
Kun Lun Mountains. Thus, between Leh and eastern Central Asia, there is a triple barrier: the Ladakh Range, the Karakoram range, and the Kun Lun. Nevertheless, a major trade route was established between Leh and Yarkand. Shyok River's tributaries are:
Galwan River: originates near Samzungling campsite on eastern side of
Karakoram range in China-held disputed territory and flows west to join the Shyok River in India-held area 102 km south of DBO. Galwan River valley is location of bloody
2020–2021 China–India skirmishes.
Chang Chenmo River: originates near
Lanak La in China-held India-claimed area of Aksai Chin. Its tributary Kugrang River is held by India, while Kugrang's tributary to east of Kugran the Changlung river is held by China & claimed by India. The
Gogra, held by India, is a pasture & confluence of Kugrang & Changlung Rivers.
Hot Springs (also called Kyam or Kayam) is confluence of Kugrang with Chang Chenmo River.[14][15][16] Gogra in Kugran Valley thus forms a key link, connecting the Kugrang valley, Changlung valley and Chang Chenmo.
Kugrang River flows from northwest to southeast within territory held by India, receiving the Changlung River tributary at Gogra and then continuing further south to fall into Chang Chenmo River near Hot Springs.
Changlung River, flows from north to southwest in China-held disputed territory, then ends into Kugrang River near the Gogra pasture held by India.
Durbuk Stream: flows east to west from
Tangtse to confluence with Shyok River near
Shyok village. Upstream at Tangtse, two following streams join to form the Durbuk Stream. These streams originate at
Pangong Tso and western side of
Chushul Heights respectively.
Pangong Stream: flows east to west from Pangong Tso, via Muglib, to Tangtse where it joins another stream from western side of Chushul heights and forms Durbuk Stream.
Chushul Western Stream: flows east to west from Chushul heights to confluence with Pangong Stream at Tangtse to forms Durbuk Stream.
Nubra River: runs from
Siachen Glacier near
Siachen Base Camp, via
Panamik &
Sasoma (starting point of
Sasoma–Saser La Road to DBO in Depsang Plains), to its confluence with Shyok River near
Diskit. Although, geographically the area between Diskit to
Chalunka is not in Nubra River Valley as it is part of Shyok River itself, culturally it is considered part of the Nubra River Valley as they follow Buddhism. Chalunka to
Turtuk (also see
Battle of Turtuk) in India and beyond to
Khaplu in PoK is called Chorbat Valley which is inhabited by the
Balti-speaking Shia Muslims.
Zanskar River: 3 main tributaries are the Markha north of Padum, Stod (Doda) west of
Padum, and the Lungnak (Tsarap Lingti) east of Padum. Zanskar suffers heavy snowfall, and the
Pensi La which connects Stod River valley with Suru River valley opens only in June and is blocked again in mid-October. The entire valley is virtually treeless.
Markha River: tributary of Zanskar River flows Hankar in east to Chilling in west and joins Zanskar River few kilometer south of
Nimoo near
Chilling & Skyu on
Nimmu–Padum–Darcha road (NPDR). Marka River forms the western side of northern boundary of Zanskar range.
Stod River: (Doda River): west of Padum, Stod originates from
Drang-drung glacier of Pensi La and flows northwest to southeast through a broad open valley towards confluence with Lungnak River just east of Padum.
Lungnak River: flows east to west from Ladakh-Himachal-Tibet tri-junction to
Padum. Its main tributaries are Tsarap River & Lingti River.
Lingti River: Lingti River and another tributary (name ?) confluence with Lungnak River just north of
Bara-lacha-la, after which Lungnak River flows past
Phugtal Monastery.
Kurgiak Cho (Kargyak River): descends from
Shingo-la near Himachal-Ladakh-J&K tri-junction, flows south to northeast to confluences with Lungnak River near Gombo Rangjun (Gonbo Rangjon).
Tsarap River: Lies north of Lungnak River & Kargyak River, west of "
Leh-Manali Highway", and east and north of Padum. It flows east to west till Tsarap River is Lungnak River's one of the main tributaries.
Suru River: Pensi La (4400 metres) near
Rangdum Monastery connects the Suru Valley in north with Stod River valley and Padum in Zanskar Valley in south. The Suru River originates from area northwest of Padum and flow past
Sankoo southwest to northeast to Kargil, after receiving the combined waters of the
Dras and
Shingo Rivers a short distance north of
Kargil it confluences with the
Indus at
Marol in
Baltistan in
PoK. Saru River forms the western boundary of the Zanskar range. Although
Rangdum Monastery & Zulidok villages, bith northeast of Pensi La, are in Suru River Valley, culturally they are considered part of Zanskar Valley (Stod Valley). Suru Valley is also the destination of the nomadic
Bakarwal herdsmen who trek up every summer from the
Jammu region.
Sankoo Stream: flows east to west from Itchu via Sangroh to join Suru River at Sankoo.
Dras River: a downstream tributary of Suru River which confluences at Kaksar (Kakshar, west of Kargil town) in India near LAC.
Shingo River: tributary of Dras River. Originates and flows through PoK Gilgit-Baltistan and enters Kargil district in India where it joins the Dras River.
^The Line of Actual Control is that marked by the contributors to the
OpenStreetMap as of January 2021, and may not be accurate. Chinese claims get more readily represented on the OpenStreetMap than other countries.[6]
^
Hayward, G. W. (1870). "Journey from Leh to Yarkand and Kashgar, and Exploration of the Sources of the Yarkand River". Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London. 40: 33–37.
doi:
10.2307/1798640.
ISSN0266-6235.
JSTOR1798640. (p. 33) 'Kiam' and 'Gogra' located near bottom of last map insert ... (p. 37) Chang Chenmo is now well known, being visited every year by at least half-a-dozen officers on long leave to Kashmir. The game to be found...