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CART prepropeptide
Identifiers
SymbolCARTPT
NCBI gene 9607
HGNC 24323
OMIM 602606
RefSeq NM_004291
UniProt Q16568
Other data
Locus Chr. 5 q13.2
Search for
Structures Swiss-model
Domains InterPro
CART
cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript
Identifiers
SymbolCART
Pfam PF06373
InterPro IPR009106
SCOP2 1hy9 / SCOPe / SUPFAM
Available protein structures:
Pfam   structures / ECOD  
PDB RCSB PDB; PDBe; PDBj
PDBsum structure summary

Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript, also known as CART, is a neuropeptide protein that in humans is encoded by the CARTPT gene. [1] [2] CART appears to have roles in reward, feeding, and stress, [3] and it has the functional properties of an endogenous psychostimulant. [4]

Function

CART is a neuropeptide that produces similar behavior in animals as cocaine and amphetamine, but conversely blocks the effects of cocaine when they are co-administered. The peptide is found in several areas, among them the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of the brain. When CART was injected into rat VTA, increased locomotor activity was seen, which is one of the signs of "central stimulation" caused by psychostimulants, such as cocaine and amphetamine. [5] The same rats also tended to return to the place where they were injected. This is called conditioned place preference and is also seen after injection of cocaine.

CART peptides, in particular, CART(55–102), seem to have an important function in the regulation of energy homeostasis and interact with several hypothalamic appetite circuits. CART expression is regulated by several peripheral peptide hormones involved in appetite regulation, including leptin, [6] cholecystokinin and ghrelin, [7] with CART and cholecystokinin having synergistic effects on appetite regulation. [8]

CART is released in response to repeated dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens, and may regulate the activity of neurons in this area. [9] CART production is upregulated by CREB, [10] a protein thought to be involved with the development of drug addiction, and CART may be an important therapeutic target in the treatment of stimulant abuse. [11] [12] [13]

Tissue distribution

CART is an anorectic peptide and is widely expressed in both the central and peripheral nervous systems, particularly concentrated in the hypothalamus. [14] CART is also expressed outside of the nervous system in pituitary endocrine cells, adrenomedullary cells, islet somatostatin cells, and in rat antral gastrin cells. [15] Other structures and pathways associated with CART expression include the mesolimbic pathway (linking the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens) and amygdala.

CART is also found in a subset of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), the primary afferent neurons in the retina. Specifically, it labels ON/OFF Direction Selective Ganglion Cells (ooDSGCs), a subpopulation of RGCs that stratify in both the ON and OFF sublamina of the Inner Plexiform Layer (IPL) of the retina. It is also found in a subset of amacrine cells in the Inner Nuclear Layer. [16] No role as of yet has been proposed for the peculiar location of this protein in these cell types.

Clinical significance

Studies of CART(54–102) action in rat lateral ventricle and amygdala suggest that CART plays a role in anxiety-like behavior, induced by ethanol withdrawal in rats. [17] Studies on CART knock-out mice indicates that CART modulates the locomotor, conditioned place preference and cocaine self-administration effects of psychostimulants. This suggests a positive neuromodulatory action of CART on the effects of psychostimulants in rats. [18] CART is altered in the ventral tegmental area of cocaine overdose victims, and a mutation in the CART gene is associated with alcoholism. [19] By inhibiting the rewarding effects of cocaine, CART has a potential use in treating cocaine addiction. [20]

CART peptides are inhibitors of food intake (anorectic) and closely associated with leptin and neuropeptide Y, two important food intake regulators. CART hypoactivity in the hypothalamus of depressed animals is associated with hyperphagia and weight gain. [21] [22] CART is thought to play a key role in the opioid mesolimbic dopamine circuit that modulates natural reward processes. [23] CART also appears to play an important role in higher brain functions like cognition. [24]

History

CART was found by examining changes in the brain following cocaine or amphetamine administration. CART mRNA increased with cocaine administration. One of the goals was to find an endogenous anoretic substance. CART inhibited rat food intake by as much as 30 percent. When naturally occurring CART peptides were blocked by means of injecting antibodies for CART, feeding was increased. This led to suggestions that CART may play a role – though not being the only peptide – in satiety. In the late 1980s, researchers started to synthesize structurally cocaine-like and functionally CART-like substances in order to find medications that could help treat eating disorders as well as cocaine abuse. Chemically, these substances belong to phenyltropanes. [25]

CART receptor

The putative receptor target for CART evaded identification through 2011, [26] however in vitro studies strongly suggested that CART binds to a specific G protein-coupled receptor coupled to Gi/Go, resulting in increased ERK release inside the cell. [26] [27] [28] [29] In 2020, CART was identified as the ligand for GPCR160. [30]

Several fragments of CART have been tested to try and uncover the pharmacophore, [31] [32] but the natural splicing products CART(55–102) and CART(62–102) are still of highest activity, with the reduced activity of smaller fragments thought to indicate that a compact structure retaining all three of CART's disulphide bonds is preferred. [33]

See also

References

  1. ^ Douglass J, Daoud S (March 1996). "Characterization of the human cDNA and genomic DNA encoding CART: a cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript". Gene. 169 (2): 241–5. doi: 10.1016/0378-1119(96)88651-3. PMID  8647455.
  2. ^ Kristensen P, Judge ME, Thim L, Ribel U, Christjansen KN, Wulff BS, Clausen JT, Jensen PB, Madsen OD, Vrang N, Larsen PJ, Hastrup S (May 1998). "Hypothalamic CART is a new anorectic peptide regulated by leptin". Nature. 393 (6680): 72–6. Bibcode: 1998Natur.393...72K. doi: 10.1038/29993. PMID  9590691. S2CID  4427258.
  3. ^ Zhang M, Han L, Xu Y (November 2011). "Roles of cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript in the central nervous system". Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 39 (6): 586–92. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1681.2011.05642.x. PMID  22077697. S2CID  25134612.
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  5. ^ Kimmel HL, Gong W, Vechia SD, Hunter RG, Kuhar MJ (August 2000). "Intra-ventral tegmental area injection of rat cocaine and amphetamine-regulated transcript peptide 55-102 induces locomotor activity and promotes conditioned place preference". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 294 (2): 784–92. PMID  10900261.
  6. ^ Murphy KG (July 2005). "Dissecting the role of cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) in the control of appetite". Brief Funct Genomic Proteomic. 4 (2): 95–111. doi: 10.1093/bfgp/4.2.95. PMID  16102267.
  7. ^ de Lartigue G, Dimaline R, Varro A, Dockray GJ (March 2007). "Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript: stimulation of expression in rat vagal afferent neurons by cholecystokinin and suppression by ghrelin". Journal of Neuroscience. 27 (11): 2876–82. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5508-06.2007. PMC  6672594. PMID  17360909.
  8. ^ Maletínská L, Maixnerová J, Matysková R, Haugvicová R, Pirník Z, Kiss A, Zelezná B (2008). "Synergistic effect of CART (cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript) peptide and cholecystokinin on food intake regulation in lean mice". BMC Neuroscience. 9: 101. doi: 10.1186/1471-2202-9-101. PMC  2587474. PMID  18939974.
  9. ^ Hubert GW, Jones DC, Moffett MC, Rogge G, Kuhar MJ (January 2008). "CART peptides as modulators of dopamine and psychostimulants and interactions with the mesolimbic dopaminergic system". Biochemical Pharmacology. 75 (1): 57–62. doi: 10.1016/j.bcp.2007.07.028. PMC  3804336. PMID  17854774.
  10. ^ Rogge GA, Jones DC, Green T, Nestler E, Kuhar MJ (January 2009). "Regulation of CART peptide expression by CREB in the rat nucleus accumbens in vivo". Brain Research. 1251: 42–52. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.11.011. PMC  2734444. PMID  19046951.
  11. ^ Fagergren P, Hurd Y (September 2007). "CART mRNA expression in rat monkey and human brain: relevance to cocaine abuse". Physiology & Behavior. 92 (1–2): 218–25. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.05.027. PMID  17631364. S2CID  11245593.
  12. ^ Vicentic A, Jones DC (February 2007). "The CART (cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript) system in appetite and drug addiction". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 320 (2): 499–506. doi: 10.1124/jpet.105.091512. PMID  16840648. S2CID  14212763.
  13. ^ Rogge G, Jones D, Hubert GW, Lin Y, Kuhar MJ (October 2008). "CART peptides: regulators of body weight, reward and other functions". Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 9 (10): 747–58. doi: 10.1038/nrn2493. PMC  4418456. PMID  18802445.
  14. ^ Keller PA, Compan V, Bockaert J, Giacobino JP, Charnay Y, Bouras C, Assimacopoulos-Jeannet F (June 2006). "Characterization and localization of cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) binding sites". Peptides. 27 (6): 1328–34. doi: 10.1016/j.peptides.2005.10.016. PMID  16309793. S2CID  27440114.
  15. ^ Wierup N, Kuhar M, Nilsson BO, Mulder H, Ekblad E, Sundler F (February 2004). "Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) is expressed in several islet cell types during rat development". J. Histochem. Cytochem. 52 (2): 169–77. doi: 10.1177/002215540405200204. PMID  14729868.
  16. ^ Kay JN, De la Huerta I, Kim IJ, Zhang Y, Yamagata M, Chu MW, et al. (May 2011). "Retinal ganglion cells with distinct directional preferences differ in molecular identity, structure, and central projections". The Journal of Neuroscience. 31 (21): 7753–62. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0907-11.2011. PMC  3108146. PMID  21613488.
  17. ^ Dandekar MP, Singru PS, Kokare DM, Lechan RM, Thim L, Clausen JT, Subhedar NK (April 2008). "Importance of cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript peptide in the central nucleus of amygdala in anxiogenic responses induced by ethanol withdrawal". Neuropsychopharmacology. 33 (5): 1127–36. doi: 10.1038/sj.npp.1301516. PMID  17637604.
  18. ^ Couceyro PR, Evans C, McKinzie A, Mitchell D, Dube M, Hagshenas L, White FJ, Douglass J, Richards WG, Bannon AW (December 2005). "Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) peptides modulate the locomotor and motivational properties of psychostimulants". J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 315 (3): 1091–100. doi: 10.1124/jpet.105.091678. PMID  16099925. S2CID  15989891.
  19. ^ Kuhar MJ, Jaworski JN, Hubert GW, Philpot KB, Dominguez G (2005). "Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript peptides play a role in drug abuse and are potential therapeutic targets". AAPS J. 7 (1): E259–65. doi: 10.1208/aapsj070125. PMC  2751515. PMID  16146347.
  20. ^ Yu C, Zhou X, Fu Q, Peng Q, Oh KW, Hu Z (2017). "A New Insight into the Role of CART in Cocaine Reward: Involvement of CaMKII and Inhibitory G-Protein Coupled Receptor Signaling". Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience. 11: 244. doi: 10.3389/fncel.2017.00244. PMC  5559471. PMID  28860971.
  21. ^ Nakhate KT, Kokare DM, Singru PS, Subhedar NK (June 2011). "Central regulation of feeding behavior during social isolation of rat: evidence for the role of endogenous CART system". Int J Obes (Lond). 35 (6): 773–84. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2010.231. PMID  21060312. S2CID  23362880.
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  29. ^ Maletínská L, Maixnerová J, Matysková R, Haugvicová R, Sloncová E, Elbert T, Slaninová J, Zelezná B (March 2007). "Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) peptide specific binding in pheochromocytoma cells PC12". European Journal of Pharmacology. 559 (2–3): 109–14. doi: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2006.12.014. PMID  17292884.
  30. ^ Yosten GL, Harada CM, Haddock C, Giancotti LA, Kolar GR, Patel R, et al. (May 2020). "GPR160 de-orphanization reveals critical roles in neuropathic pain in rodents". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 130 (5): 2587–2592. doi: 10.1172/JCI133270. PMC  7190928. PMID  31999650.
  31. ^ Bannon AW, Seda J, Carmouche M, Francis JM, Jarosinski MA, Douglass J (December 2001). "Multiple behavioral effects of cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) peptides in mice: CART 42-89 and CART 49-89 differ in potency and activity". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 299 (3): 1021–6. PMID  11714891.
  32. ^ Dylag T, Kotlinska J, Rafalski P, Pachuta A, Silberring J (August 2006). "The activity of CART peptide fragments". Peptides. 27 (8): 1926–33. doi: 10.1016/j.peptides.2005.10.025. PMID  16730858. S2CID  2659119.
  33. ^ Maixnerová J, Hlavácek J, Blokesová D, Kowalczyk W, Elbert T, Sanda M, Blechová M, Zelezná B, Slaninová J, Maletínská L (October 2007). "Structure-activity relationship of CART (cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript) peptide fragments". Peptides. 28 (10): 1945–53. doi: 10.1016/j.peptides.2007.07.022. PMID  17766010. S2CID  40284900.

External links

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