This is the archive of articles featured on the History portal in 2007.
Theramenes (d. 404 BC, Greek: Θηραμένης) was an Athenian statesman, prominent in the final decade of the Peloponnesian War. He is particularly active during the two periods of oligarchic government at Athens, as well as in the trial of the generals who had commanded at Arginusae in 408 BC. A moderate oligarch, he often found himself caught between the democrats on the one hand and the extreme oligarchs on the other. Successful in replacing a narrow oligarchy with a broader one in 411 BC, he failed to achieve the same end in 404 BC, and was executed by the extremists whose policies he had opposed.
Theramenes was a central figure in four major episodes of Athenian history. He appeared on the scene in 411 BC as one of the leaders of an oligarchic
coup, but, as his views and those of the coup's other leaders diverged, he began to oppose their dictates and took the lead in replacing the narrow oligarchy they had imposed with a more broadly based one. He served as a general for several years after this, but was not reelected to that office in 407 BC. After the
Battle of Arginusae, in which he served as a trierarch, he was assigned to rescue Athenian sailors from sinking ships, but was prevented from doing so by a storm.
Laika (from Russian: Лайка, a breed of dog, literally: "Barker") was a Russian space dog and the first living creature from Earth to enter orbit. Originally named Kudryavka, she was renamed Laika after her breed type. After undergoing training with two other dogs, she was selected to be the occupant of the Soviet spacecraft Sputnik 2 and was launched into space on 3 November 1957.
Laika died a few hours after launch from stress and overheating, probably due to a malfunction in the thermal control system. The true cause of her death was not made public until decades after the flight. Some former Soviet scientists have since expressed regret that Laika was allowed to die.
Although Laika did not survive the trip, the experiment proved that a living passenger could survive being launched into orbit and endure
weightlessness. It paved the way for human
spaceflight and provided scientists with some of the first data on how living
organisms react to spaceflight environments.
The
Great Fire of London was a major
conflagration that swept through the central parts of
London,
UK, from Sunday,
2 September to Wednesday, 5 September 1666. The fire gutted the medieval
City of London inside the old
Roman
City Wall. It threatened, but did not reach,the aristocratic district of
Westminster (the modern
West End),
Charles II's
Palace of Whitehall, and most of the suburban
slums. It consumed 13,200 houses, 87 parish churches,
St. Paul's Cathedral, and most of the buildings of the City authorities. It is estimated that it destroyed the homes of 70,000 of the City's 80,000 inhabitants. The death toll from the fire is unknown and is traditionally thought to have been small, as only a few verified deaths were recorded. This reasoning has recently been challenged on the grounds that the deaths of poor and middle-class people were not recorded anywhere, and that the heat of the fire may have cremated many victims, leaving no recognisable remains.
RMS Titanic was an Olympic-class passenger liner best remembered for its collision with an iceberg, and for its dramatic sinking on 14 April 1912. The second of a trio of superliners, she and her sister ships the Olympic and the Brittanic were designed to provide a three-ship weekly express service and dominate the transatlantic travel business for the White Star Line.
Built by the
Harland and Wolff shipyard in
Belfast, at the time of her sinking. Titanic was the largest
passenger
steamship in the world. Her maiden voyage was from
Southampton,
England; calling at
Cherbourg, France; and
Queenstown (Cobh), Ireland; her final destination was
New York). She struck an iceberg at 11:40 p.m. (ship's time) on Sunday evening 14 April 1912. RMS Titanic sank two hours and forty minutes later on Monday
15 April at 2:20 a.m.
after breaking into two pieces at the aft expansion joint.
Elias Ashmole (23 May 1617–18 May 1692), the celebrated English antiquary, was a politician, officer of arms, student of astrology and alchemy, and an early speculative Freemason. He supported the royalist side during the English Civil War, and at the restoration of Charles II he was rewarded with several lucrative offices. Throughout his life he was an avid collector of curiosities and other artifacts. Many of these he acquired from the traveller, botanist, and collector John Tradescant the younger, and most he donated to Oxford University to create the Ashmolean Museum. He also donated his library and priceless manuscript collection to Oxford.
Apart from his collecting hobbies, Ashmole illustrates the passing of the occult philosophy in the 17th century: while he immersed himself in alchemical, magical and astrological studies and was consulted on astrological questions by Charles II and his court, these studies were essentially backward-looking. Although he was one of the founding members of the
Royal Society, a key institution in the development of experimental science, he never participated actively.
The Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, also known as the Tiananmen Square Massacre, June 4th Incident, or the Political Turmoil between Spring and Summer of 1989 by the government of the People's Republic of China, were a series of demonstrations led by students, intellectuals and labour activists in the People's Republic of China between April 15, 1989 and June 4, 1989. The demonstrations centred on Tiananmen Square in Beijing, but large scale protests also occurred in cities throughout China, including Shanghai.
In Beijing, the resulting crackdown on the protestors by the PRC government left many civilians dead. The toll ranges from 200–300 (PRC government figures), to 2,000–3,000 (Chinese student associations and Chinese Red Cross), although the PRC government asserts and most independent observers agree that these deaths were not in the square itself but rather in the streets leading to the square.
The protestors came from disparate groups, ranging from intellectuals who believed the Communist Party of China-led government was too corrupt and repressive to urban workers who believed Chinese economic reform had gone too far and that the resulting rampant inflation and widespread unemployment was threatening their livelihoods.
After the protestors defied government calls to disperse, a split emerged within the Communist Party of China on how to respond to the protestors. A hardline faction emerged from the turmoil and decided to quell the protests rather than heed their demands.
On
May 20, the government declared
martial law and, on the night of
June 3 and the early morning of
June 4, army tanks and infantry were sent into Tiananmen Square to crush the protest and disperse the protestors. Estimates of civilian deaths vary: 23 (
Communist Party of China), 400–800 (
Central Intelligence Agency), 2600 (Chinese Red Cross). Injuries are generally held to have numbered from 7,000 to 10,000. As of June of 2006, the confirmed number of deaths that happened around that night is 186 according to professor Ding Zilin. Following the violence, the government conducted widespread arrests to suppress the remaining supporters of the movement, banned the foreign press and strictly controlled coverage of the events in the PRC press. The violent suppression of the Tiananmen Square protest caused widespread international condemnation of the PRC government.
The known history of the Yosemite area started with Ahwahnechee and Paiute peoples who inhabited the central Sierra Nevada region of California that now includes Yosemite National Park. At the time when the first non-indigenous people entered the area, a band of Native Americans called the Ahwahnechee lived in Yosemite Valley. The California Gold Rush in the mid-19th century greatly increased the number of non-indigenous people in the area. Conflict ensued as part of the Mariposa Wars, and the Mariposa Battalion entered Yosemite Valley in 1851 while in pursuit of the Ahwaneechees led by Chief Tenaya. Accounts from this battalion were the first confirmed cases of Caucasians entering the valley.
The Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Grove were ceded to California as a state park, in 1864, with Galen Clark as its first guardian. Access to the park by tourists improved in the early years of the park and conditions in the Valley were made more hospitable. Naturalist John Muir and others soon became alarmed about over-exploitation of the area, and helped push through the creation of Yosemite National Park in 1890. It would not be until 1906 that the Valley and Grove would be added.
Jurisdiction of the park was first under the
United States Army's
4th Cavalry Regiment, and was transferred to the
National Park Service in 1916. Many improvements to the park made through this entire time induced dramatic increases in visitation. Controversies did arise along the way; the most notable was the failed fight to save
Hetch Hetchy Valley from becoming a
reservoir and
hydroelectric power plant. Since then, about 94% of the park has been set aside in a highly protected
wilderness area, and other protected areas were added adjacent to the park. The once-famous
Yosemite Firefall, created by red hot embers being pushed off of a cliff near
Glacier Point at night, has been discontinued.
The
Indo-Greek Kingdom (or sometimes Graeco-Indian Kingdom) covered various parts of the northwest and northern
Indian subcontinent from
180 BCE to around
10 CE, and was ruled by a succession of more than 30
Hellenistic kings, often in conflict with each other. The kingdom was founded when the
Greco-Bactrian king
Demetrius invaded India in 180 BCE, ultimately creating an entity which seceded from the powerful
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom centered in
Bactria (today's northern
Afghanistan). Since the term "Indo-Greek Kingdom" loosely describes a number of various dynastic polities, it had numerous capitals, but the city of
Taxila in northern
Pakistan was probably among the earliest seats of local Hellenic rulers, though cities like
Pushkalavati and
Sagala (apparently the largest of such residences) would house a number of dynasties in their times, and based on
Ptolemy's
Geographia and the nomenclature of later kings, a certain Theophila in the south was also probably a satrapal or royal seat at some point.
The year 1870 in the history of the Cape Colony marks the dawn of a new era in South Africa, and it can be said that the development of modern South Africa began on that date. Despite political complications that arose from time to time, progress in Cape Colony continued at a steady pace until the outbreak of the Anglo-Boer Wars in 1899. The discovery of diamonds in the Orange River in 1867 was immediately followed by similar finds in the Vaal River. This led to the rapid occupation and development of huge tracts of the country, which had hitherto been sparsely inhabited. Dutoitspan and Bultfontein diamond mines were discovered in 1870 and in 1871 the even richer mines of Kimberley and De Beers were discovered. These four great deposits of mineral wealth were incredibly productive, and constituted the greatest industrial asset that the Colony possessed.
This period also witnessed the increasing tensions between the
English-dominated Cape Colony and the
Afrikaner-dominated
Transvaal. These conflicts led to the break out of the
First Boer War. These tensions mainly concerned the easing of trade restrictions between the different colonies as well as the construction of
railways. The leaders of Cape Colony consistently believed the leaders of the colonies around them to be more trustworthy and reliable than they were, which caused internal problems within the Cape.
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman ( Bengali: শেখ মুজিবর রহমান Shekh Mujibur Rôhman; March 17, 1920 – August 15, 1975) was a Bengali political leader in East Pakistan and the founding leader of Bangladesh. He headed the Awami League, served as the first President of Bangladesh and later became its Prime Minister. He is popularly referred to as Sheikh Mujib, and with the honorary title of Bangabandhu (Friend of Bengal). His eldest daughter Sheikh Hasina Wajed is the present leader of the Awami League and a former prime minister of Bangladesh.
A student political leader, Mujib rose in East Pakistani politics and within the ranks of the Awami League as a charismatic and forceful orator. An advocate of socialism, Mujib became popular for his leadership against the ethnic and institutional discrimination of Bengalis. He demanded increased provincial autonomy, and became a fierce opponent of the military rule of Ayub Khan. At the heightening of sectional tensions, Mujib outlined a 6-point autonomy plan, which was seen as separatism in West Pakistan. He was tried in 1968 for allegedly conspiring with the Indian government but was not found guilty. Despite leading his party to a major victory in the 1970 elections, Mujib was not invited to form the government.
After talks broke down with President
Yahya Khan and West Pakistani politician
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Mujib was arrested and a
guerrilla war erupted between government forces and Bengali nationalists aided by India. An all out war between the Pakistan Army and Bangladesh-India Joint Forces led to the establishment of Bangladesh, and after his release Mujib assumed office as a provisional president, and later prime minister. Even as a constitution was adopted, proclaiming socialism and a secular democracy, Mujib struggled to address the challenges of intense poverty and unemployment. Amidst rising political turmoil, he banned other political parties and declared himself president in 1975. Mujib was
assassinated along with his family by a group of army officers.
The Italian Renaissance began the opening phase of the Renaissance, a period of great cultural change and achievement in Europe that spanned the period from the end of the 14th century to about 1600, marking the transition between Medieval and Early Modern Europe. The term renaissance is in essence a modern one that came into currency in the nineteenth century, in the work of historians such as Jacob Burckhardt. Although the origins of a movement that was confined largely to the literate culture of intellectual endeavor and patronage can be traced to the earlier part of the 14th century, many aspects of Italian culture and society remained largely Medieval; the Renaissance did not come into full swing until the end of the century. The word renaissance (Rinascimento in Italian) means “rebirth”, and the era is best known for the renewed interest in the culture of classical antiquity after the period that Renaissance humanists labelled the Dark Ages. These changes, while significant, were concentrated in the elite, and for the vast majority of the population life was little changed from the Middle Ages.
The Italian Renaissance began in Tuscany, centered in the cities of Florence and Siena. It later had a significant impact in Venice, where the remains of ancient Greek culture were brought together, feeding the humanist scholars with new texts. The Renaissance later had a significant effect on Rome, which was ornamented with some structures in the new all'antico mode, then was largely rebuilt by sixteenth-century popes. The Italian Renaissance peaked in the late 15th century as foreign invasions plunged the region into turmoil: see Italian Wars. However, the ideas and ideals of the Renaissance spread into the rest of Europe, setting off the Northern Renaissance centered in Fontainebleau and Antwerp, and the English Renaissance.
The Italian Renaissance is best known for its cultural achievements. They include works of literature by such figures as
Petrarch,
Castiglione, and
Machiavelli: see
Renaissance literature; works of art by artists such as
Michelangelo and
Leonardo da Vinci: see
Renaissance art; and great works of architecture, such as
The Duomo in Florence and
St. Peter's Basilica in Rome: see
Renaissance architecture. At the same time, present-day historians also see the era as one of economic regression and of little progress in
science, which made its great leaps forward among Protestant culture in the seventeenth century.
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| Portrait of Samuel Adams. |
Samuel Adams (September 27 [ O.S. September 16] 1722 – October 2, 1803) was an American statesman, politician, writer and political philosopher, brewer, and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Adams was instrumental in garnering the support of the colonies for rebellion against Great Britain, eventually resulting in the American Revolution, and was also one of the key architects of the principles of American republicanism that shaped American political culture.
Born in Boston, Massachusetts, Adams was brought up in a religious and politically active family. After being educated at Boston Latin School and Harvard College, Adams became a mercantile businessman, but this proved not to be his vocation and he soon turned to politics, and became an influential political writer and theorist. Adams established himself as one of the voices of opposition to British control in the colonies; he argued that the colonies should withdraw from Great Britain and form a new government. Adams called for the colonists to defend their rights and liberties, and led town meetings in which he drafted written protests against Parliament's colonial tax measures such as the Stamp Act of 1765. Adams played a prominent role during protests against the Stamp Act, and in the events of the Boston Tea Party in 1773. He participated in the Continental Congress. He also advocated the adoption of the Declaration of Independence at the Second Continental Congress.
After the
United States declared its independence in
1776, Adams helped write the
Massachusetts Constitution with
John Adams, his cousin, and
James Bowdoin. Afterwards, Adams helped draft the
Articles of Confederation. Following the end of the
American Revolutionary War, he ran for the
House of Representatives in the
1st United States Congressional election, but was unsuccessful in his bid. He was elected
Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts in 1789, and after
John Hancock's death in 1793, Adams served as the acting governor until he was elected governor in January of the following year. He served in that position until June 1797 when he retired from politics. He died six years later on October 2, 1803.