American robotic spacecraft send to Venus in 1978; last spacecraft in Pioneer program
Pioneer Venus Multiprobe
Pioneer Venus Multiprobe
Mission type
Venus atmospheric probes Operator
NASA /
ARC
COSPAR ID
1978-078A
SATCAT
no. 11001 Website
National Space Science Data Center (NASA) Mission duration 4 months, 1 day, 13 hours, 22 minutes
Bus HS-507 Manufacturer
Hughes Launch mass 904 kilograms (1,993 lb)
[1] Dry mass 290 kilograms (640 lb) (bus) 315 kilograms (694 lb) (large probe)3 x 90 kilograms (200 lb) (small probes) Power 241 W
Launch date August 8, 1978, 07:33 (1978-08-08UTC07:33Z ) UTC
[1] Rocket
Atlas SLV-3D Centaur-D1AR Launch site
Cape Canaveral
LC-36A
Last contact December 9, 1978, 20:22:55 UTC (bus) December 9, 1978, 20:55:34 (1978-12-09UTC20:55:35Z ) UTC (day probe)
Reference system
Heliocentric
Semi-major axis 0.9 astronomical units (130,000,000 km; 84,000,000 mi)
Eccentricity 0.19
Perihelion altitude 0.69 astronomical units (103,000,000 km; 64,000,000 mi)
Aphelion altitude 1.01 astronomical units (151,000,000 km; 94,000,000 mi)
Inclination 2.3 degrees
Period 284.0 days
Spacecraft component Large Probe Atmospheric entry December 9, 1978, 18:45:32 UTC Impact date 19:39:53 UTC Impact site
4°24′N 304°00′E / 4.4°N 304.0°E / 4.4; 304.0 Spacecraft component North Probe Atmospheric entry December 9, 1978, 18:49:40 UTC Impact date 19:42:40 UTC Impact site
59°18′N 4°48′E / 59.3°N 4.8°E / 59.3; 4.8 Spacecraft component Day Probe Atmospheric entry December 9, 1978, 18:52:18 UTC Impact date 19:47:59 UTC Impact site
31°18′S 317°00′E / 31.3°S 317.0°E / -31.3; 317.0 Spacecraft component Night Probe Atmospheric entry December 9, 1978, 18:56:13 UTC Impact date 19:52:05 UTC Impact site
28°42′S 56°42′E / 28.7°S 56.7°E / -28.7; 56.7 Atmospheric entry December 9, 1978, 20:21:52 UTC
The Pioneer Venus Multiprobe , also known as Pioneer Venus 2 or Pioneer 13 , was a spacecraft launched in 1978 to explore
Venus as part of
NASA 's
Pioneer program . This part of the mission included a
spacecraft bus which was launched from Earth carrying one large and three smaller probes, which after separating penetrated the Venusian atmosphere at a different location, returning data as they descended into the planet's thick atmosphere. The entry occurred on December 9, 1978.
In context
There was also an orbiter launched in 1978, part of the overall
Pioneer Venus project along with this entry probe mission. Whereas the probes entered the atmosphere in 1978, the
Pioneer Venus Orbiter would stay in orbit throughout the 1980s and the early 1990s. The next major mission was the
Magellan spacecraft , which was an orbiter capable of mapping Venus by seeing through its opaque clouds with radar.
Spacecraft
Pioneer Venus Bus with probes attached
The Pioneer Venus Multiprobe bus was constructed by the
Hughes Aircraft Company , built around the HS-507
bus . It was cylindrical in shape, with a diameter of 2.5 meters (8 ft 2 in) and a mass of 290 kilograms (640 lb). Unlike the probes, which did not begin making direct measurements until they had decelerated lower in the atmosphere, the bus returned data on Venus' upper atmosphere.
The bus was targeted to enter the Venusian atmosphere at a shallow entry angle and transmit data until destruction by the heat of atmospheric friction. The objective was to study the structure and composition of the atmosphere down to the surface, the nature and composition of the clouds, the radiation field and energy exchange in the lower atmosphere, and local information on atmospheric circulation patterns. With no
heat shield or
parachute , the bus made upper atmospheric measurements with two instruments:
BIMS – an
ion
mass spectrometer to determine the origin and long-term development of the Venusian atmosphere, the dynamics of the upper atmosphere layers, its energy balance and the effect of
solar radiation and
interplanetary space on those layers. This instrument had a range of 1 to 46
u , used 6 W of power and weighed 5 kilograms (11 lb).
BNMS – a neutral mass spectrometer. This made measurements of the interaction between the
solar wind and
Venus , the photochemistry of the upper layers of and heat distribution in the
Venusian atmosphere . It had a range of 1 to 60 u, weighed 1 kilogram (2.2 lb), and used ~1 W of power.
The spacecraft operated down to an altitude of about 110 kilometres (68 mi) before disintegrating.
Probes
The spacecraft carried one large and three small atmospheric probes, designed to collect data as they descended into the
atmosphere of Venus . The probes did not carry photographic instruments, and were not designed to survive landing – the smaller probes were not equipped with parachutes, and the larger probe's parachute was expected to detach as it neared the ground. All four probes continued transmitting data until impact; however, one survived and continued to transmit data from the surface.
Large probe
Pioneer Venus Large Probe opens its parachute (artist's rendition)
The large probe carried seven experiments, contained within a sealed spherical pressure vessel. The science experiments were:
LNMS – neutral
mass spectrometer to measure the atmospheric composition
LGC –
gas chromatograph to measure the atmospheric composition
LSFR – solar flux radiometer to measure solar flux penetration in the atmosphere
LIR – infrared radiometer to measure distribution of infrared radiation
LCPS – cloud particle size spectrometer to measure particle size and shape
LN –
nephelometer to search for cloud particles
temperature, pressure, and acceleration sensors
This pressure vessel was encased in a nose cone and aft protective cover. After deceleration from initial atmospheric entry at about 11.5 kilometers per second (7.1 mi/s) near the equator on the night side of Venus, a
parachute was deployed at 67 kilometres (42 mi) altitude. The large probe was about 150 centimeters (59 in) in diameter and the pressure vessel itself was 73.2 centimeters (28.8 in) in diameter.
Small probes
A small probe (1-antenna, 2-temperature sensor, 3-frontal protection, 4-hermetic container, 5-nephelometer, 6-radiometer)
Entry of Pioneer Venus Multiprobe (comprising 1 large and 3 small probes)
Pioneer Venus Large Probe descent sequence
Three identical small probes, around 0.8 meters (2 ft 7 in) in diameter, were deployed. These probes consisted of spherical pressure vessels surrounded by an aeroshell, but unlike the large probe, they had no parachutes and the aeroshells did not separate from the probes.
The science experiments were:
[2]
a neutral
mass spectrometer to measure the atmospheric composition
a
gas chromatograph to measure the atmospheric composition
SNFR –
solar flux radiometer to measure solar flux penetration in the atmosphere
an infrared radiometer to measure distribution of infrared radiation
MTUR – cloud particle size spectrometer to measure particle size and shape
SN –
nephelometer to search for cloud particles
SAS – temperature, pressure, and acceleration sensors
The radio signals from all four probes were also used to characterize the winds, turbulence, and propagation in the atmosphere. The small probes were each targeted at different parts of the planet and were named accordingly.
[3]
The North probe entered the atmosphere at about 60 degrees north latitude on the day side.
The Night probe entered on the night side.
The Day probe entered well into the day side, and was the only one of the four probes which continued to send radio signals back after impact, for over an hour.
Launch
The Pioneer Venus Multiprobe was launched by an
Atlas SLV-3D Centaur-D1AR rocket, which flew from
Launch Complex 36A at the
Cape Canaveral Air Force Station . The launch occurred at 07:33 on August 8, 1978, and deployed the Multiprobe into
heliocentric orbit for its coast to Venus.
Arrival at Venus
Prior to the Multiprobe reaching Venus, the four probes were deployed from the main bus. The large probe was released on November 16, 1978, and the three small probes on November 20.
All four probes and the bus reached Venus on December 9, 1978. The large probe was the first to enter the atmosphere, at 18:45:32 UTC, followed over the next 11 minutes by the other three probes. The bus entered the atmosphere at 20:21:52 UTC and returned its last signal at 20:22:55 from an altitude of 110 kilometres (68 mi).
The four probes transmitted data until they impacted the surface of Venus. The Day Probe survived the impact, returning data from the surface for 67 minutes and 37 seconds after reaching the surface.
[4]
Scientific results
Below the altitude of 50 kilometres (31 mi) the temperatures measured by the four probes are identical to within a few degrees. They are between 448 and 459 °C (838 and 858 °F) on the surface. The ground pressure is between 86.2 and 94.5 bars (8,620 and 9,450 kPa). Nephelometers identified three
cloud layers with different characteristics. The most remarkable discovery was that the ratio of
36 argon /
40 argon
isotopes was much higher than in the Earth's atmosphere, which seems to indicate that the genesis of the
Venusian atmosphere is very different from that of
Earth . The reconstituted trajectory of the atmospheric probes determined that the wind averaged a speed of 200 metres per second (660 ft/s) in the middle cloud layer at 50 metres per second (160 ft/s) at the base of these clouds and just 1 metre per second (3.3 ft/s) at the ground. Overall data from airborne sensors confirmed, while specifying the data obtained by the
Soviet space probe
Venera program that preceded this mission.
[5]
Trajectory
Diagram of the PVM's path to planet Venus from Earth in 1978, and this also notes the launch of the
Pioneer Venus Orbiter which took place that year also.
Trajectory of Pioneer Venus Multiprobe in 1978
Graphic overview
Pioneer Venus Multiprobe infographic
See also
References
External links
Articles in Science Magazine issue 4401 (1979)
Donahue, T. M. (6 July 1979).
"Pioneer Venus Results: An Overview" . Science . 205 (4401): 41–44.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...41D .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.41 .
JSTOR
1748508 .
PMID
17778895 .
S2CID
1600807 .
Colin, Lawrence (6 July 1979).
"Encounter with Venus: An Update" . Science . 205 (4401): 44–46.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...44C .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.44 .
JSTOR
1748509 .
PMID
17778896 .
S2CID
26297893 .
Seiff, Alvin; Kirk, Donn B.; Young, Richard E.; Sommer, Simon C.; Blanchard, Robert C.; Findlay, John T.; Kelly, G. M. (6 July 1979).
"Thermal Contrast in the Atmosphere of Venus: Initial Appraisal from Pioneer Venus Probe Data" . Science . 205 (4401): 46–49.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...46S .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.46 .
JSTOR
1748510 .
PMID
17778897 .
S2CID
24774892 .
Hoffman, J. H.; Hodges, R. R.; McElroy, M. B.; Donahue, T. M.; Kolpin, M. (6 July 1979).
"Composition and Structure of the Venus Atmosphere: Results from Pioneer Venus" . Science . 205 (4401): 49–52.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...49H .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.49 .
JSTOR
1748511 .
PMID
17778898 .
S2CID
20713222 .
Oyama, V. I.; Carle, G. C.; Woeller, F.; Pollack, J. B. (6 July 1979).
"Laboratory Corroboration of the Pioneer Venus Gas Chromatograph Analyses" . Science . 205 (4401): 52–54.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...52O .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.52 .
JSTOR
1748512 .
PMID
17778899 .
S2CID
40293580 .
Niemann, H. B.; Hartle, R. E.; Hedin, A. E.; Kasprzak, W. T.; Spencer, N. W.; Hunten, D. M.; Carignan, G. R. (6 July 1979).
"Venus Upper Atmosphere Neutral Gas Composition: First Observations of the Diurnal Variations" . Science . 205 (4401): 54–56.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...54N .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.54 .
JSTOR
1748513 .
PMID
17778900 .
S2CID
21839920 .
Pollack, James B.; Black, David C. (6 July 1979).
"Implications of the Gas Compositional Measurements of Pioneer Venus for the Origin of Planetary Atmospheres" . Science . 205 (4401): 56–59.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...56P .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.56 .
JSTOR
1748514 .
PMID
17778901 .
S2CID
13281057 .
Stewart, A. Ian; Barth, Charles A. (6 July 1979).
"Ultraviolet Night Airglow of Venus" . Science . 205 (4401): 59–62.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...59S .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.59 .
JSTOR
1748515 .
PMID
17778902 .
S2CID
12841902 .
Keating, G. M.; Taylor, F. W.; Nicholson, J. Y.; Hinson, E. W. (6 July 1979).
"Short-Term Cyclic Variations and Diurnal Variations of the Venus Upper Atmosphere" . Science . 205 (4401): 62–64.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...62K .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.62 .
JSTOR
1748516 .
PMID
17778903 .
S2CID
23057356 .
Taylor, F. W.; Diner, D. J.; Elson, L. S.; McCleese, D. J.; Martonchik, J. V.; Delderfield, J.; Bradley, S. P.; Schofield, J. T.; Gille, J. C.; Coffey, M. T. (6 July 1979).
"Temperature, Cloud Structure, and Dynamics of Venus Middle Atmosphere by Infrared Remote Sensing from Pioneer Orbiter" . Science . 205 (4401): 65–67.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...65T .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.65 .
JSTOR
1748517 .
PMID
17778904 .
S2CID
2023608 .
Blamont, Jacques; Ragent, Boris (6 July 1979).
"Further Results of the Pioneer Venus Nephelometer Experiment" . Science . 205 (4401): 67–70.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...67B .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.67 .
JSTOR
1748518 .
PMID
17778905 .
S2CID
19155512 .
Knollenberg, Robert G.; Hunten, D. M. (6 July 1979).
"Clouds of Venus: A Preliminary Assessment of Microstructure" . Science . 205 (4401): 70–74.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...70K .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.70 .
JSTOR
1748519 .
PMID
17778906 .
S2CID
36125836 .
Travis, L. D.; Coffeen, D. L.; Del Genio, A. D.; Hansen, J. E.; Kawabata, K.; Lacis, A. A.; Lane, W. A.; Limaye, S. S.; Rossow, W. B.; Stone, P. H. (6 July 1979). "Cloud Images from the Pioneer Venus Orbiter". Science . 205 (4401): 74–76.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...74T .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.74 .
JSTOR
1748520 .
PMID
17778907 .
S2CID
43906539 .
Pollack, James B.; Ragent, Boris; Boese, Robert; Tomasko, Martin G.; Blamont, Jacques; Knollenberg, Robert G.; Esposito, Larry W.; Stewart, A. Ian; Travis, Lawrence (6 July 1979).
"Nature of the Ultraviolet Absorber in the Venus Clouds: Inferences Based on Pioneer Venus Data" . Science . 205 (4401): 76–79.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...76P .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.76 .
JSTOR
1748521 .
PMID
17778908 .
S2CID
28250903 .
Tomasko, Martin G.; Doose, Lyn R.; Smith, Peter H. (6 July 1979).
"Absorption of Sunlight in the Atmosphere of Venus" . Science . 205 (4401): 80–82.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...80T .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.80 .
hdl :
2060/19830010359 .
JSTOR
1748522 .
PMID
17778909 .
S2CID
35649934 .
Suomi, V. E.; Sromovsky, L. A.; Revercomb, H. E. (6 July 1979).
"Preliminary Results of the Pioneer Venus Small Probe Net Flux Radiometer Experiment" . Science . 205 (4401): 82–85.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...82S .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.82 .
JSTOR
1748523 .
PMID
17778910 .
S2CID
22181310 .
Counselman, C. C.; Gourevitch, S. A.; King, R. W.; Loriot, G. B.; Prinn, R. G. (6 July 1979).
"Venus Winds Are Zonal and Retrograde Below the Clouds" . Science . 205 (4401): 85–87.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...85C .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.85 .
JSTOR
1748524 .
PMID
17778911 .
S2CID
39737494 .
Woo, Richard; Armstrong, J. W.; Kendall, William B. (6 July 1979).
"Measurements of Turbulence in the Venus Atmosphere Deduced from Pioneer Venus Multiprobe Radio Scintillations" . Science . 205 (4401): 87–89.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...87W .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.87 .
JSTOR
1748525 .
PMID
17778912 .
S2CID
10233431 .
Pettengill, Gordon H.; Ford, Peter G.; Brown, Walter E.; Kaula, William M.; Masursky, Harold; Eliason, Eric; McGill, George E. (6 July 1979).
"Venus: Preliminary Topographic and Surface Imaging Results from the Pioneer Orbiter" . Science . 205 (4401): 90–93.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...90P .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.90 .
JSTOR
1748526 .
PMID
17778913 .
S2CID
12582229 .
Phillips, Roger J.; Sjogren, William L.; Abbott, Elsa A.; Smith, John C.; Wimberly, Ray N.; Wagner, Cari A. (6 July 1979).
"Gravity Field of Venus: A Preliminary Analysis" . Science . 205 (4401): 93–96.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...93P .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.93 .
JSTOR
1748527 .
PMID
17778914 .
S2CID
21557337 .
Taylor, Harry A.; Brinton, Henry C.; Bauer, Siegfried J.; Hartle, Richard E.; Cloutier, Paul A.; Daniell, Robert E.; Donahue, Thomas M. (6 July 1979).
"Ionosphere of Venus: First Observations of Day-Night Variations of the Ion Composition" . Science . 205 (4401): 96–99.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...96T .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.96 .
JSTOR
1748528 .
PMID
17778915 .
S2CID
11269827 .
Kliore, A. J.; Patel, I. R.; Nagy, A. F.; Cravens, T. E.; Gombosi, T. I. (6 July 1979).
"Initial Observations of the Nightside Ionosphere of Venus from Pioneer Venus Orbiter Radio Occultations" . Science . 205 (4401): 99–102.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...99K .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.99 .
JSTOR
1748529 .
PMID
17778916 .
S2CID
10322619 .
Brace, L. H.; Theis, R. F.; Niemann, H. B.; Mayr, H. G.; Hoegy, W. R.; Nagy, A. F. (6 July 1979).
"Empirical Models of the Electron Temperature and Density in the Nightside Venus Ionosphere" . Science . 205 (4401): 102–105.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205..102B .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.102 .
JSTOR
1748530 .
PMID
17778917 .
S2CID
25337442 .
Knudsen, W. C.; Spenner, K.; Whitten, R. C.; Spreiter, J. R.; Miller, K. L.; Novak, V. (6 July 1979).
"Thermal Structure and Energy Influx to the Day- and Nightside Venus Ionosphere" . Science . 205 (4401): 105–107.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205..105K .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.105 .
JSTOR
1748531 .
PMID
17778918 .
S2CID
26084728 .
Nagy, A. F.; Cravens, T. E.; Chen, R. H.; Taylor, H. A.; Brace, L. H.; Brinton, H. C. (6 July 1979).
"Comparison of Calculated and Measured Ion Densities on the Dayside of Venus" . Science . 205 (4401): 107–109.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205..107N .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.107 .
JSTOR
1748532 .
PMID
17778919 .
S2CID
28832064 .
Bauer, Siegfried J.; Donahue, Thomas M.; Hartle, Richard E.; Taylor, Harry A. (6 July 1979).
"Venus Ionosphere: Photochemical and Thermal Diffusion Control of Ion Composition" . Science . 205 (4401): 109–112.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205..109B .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.109 .
JSTOR
1748533 .
PMID
17778920 .
S2CID
32579568 .
Taylor, W. W. L.; Scarf, F. L.; Russell, C. T.; Brace, L. H. (6 July 1979).
"Absorption of Whistler Mode Waves in the Ionosphere of Venus" . Science . 205 (4401): 112–114.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205..112T .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.112 .
JSTOR
1748534 .
PMID
17778921 .
S2CID
45428203 .
Russell, C. T.; Elphic, R. C.; Slavin, J. A. (6 July 1979).
"Initial Pioneer Venus Magnetic Field Results: Nightside Observations" . Science . 205 (4401): 114–116.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205..114R .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.114 .
JSTOR
1748535 .
PMID
17778922 .
S2CID
24494352 .
Intriligator, D. S.; Collard, H. R.; Mihalov, J. D.; Whitten, R. C.; Wolfe, J. H. (6 July 1979).
"Electron Observations and Ion Flows from the Pioneer Venus Orbiter Plasma Analyzer Experiment" . Science . 205 (4401): 116–119.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205..116I .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.116 .
JSTOR
1748536 .
PMID
17778923 .
S2CID
42935022 .
Evans, W. D.; Glore, J. P.; Klebesadel, R. W.; Laros, J. G.; Tech, E. R.; Spalding, R. E. (6 July 1979).
"Gamma-Ray Burst Observations by Pioneer Venus Orbiter" . Science . 205 (4401): 119–121.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205..119E .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.119 .
JSTOR
1748537 .
PMID
17778924 .
S2CID
38916824 .
Donahue, T. M. (6 July 1979).
"Pioneer Venus Results: An Overview" . Science . 205 (4401): 41–44.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...41D .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.41 .
JSTOR
1748508 .
PMID
17778895 .
S2CID
1600807 .
Colin, Lawrence (6 July 1979).
"Encounter with Venus: An Update" . Science . 205 (4401): 44–46.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...44C .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.44 .
JSTOR
1748509 .
PMID
17778896 .
S2CID
26297893 .
Seiff, Alvin; Kirk, Donn B.; Young, Richard E.; Sommer, Simon C.; Blanchard, Robert C.; Findlay, John T.; Kelly, G. M. (6 July 1979).
"Thermal Contrast in the Atmosphere of Venus: Initial Appraisal from Pioneer Venus Probe Data" . Science . 205 (4401): 46–49.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...46S .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.46 .
JSTOR
1748510 .
PMID
17778897 .
S2CID
24774892 .
Hoffman, J. H.; Hodges, R. R.; McElroy, M. B.; Donahue, T. M.; Kolpin, M. (6 July 1979).
"Composition and Structure of the Venus Atmosphere: Results from Pioneer Venus" . Science . 205 (4401): 49–52.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...49H .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.49 .
JSTOR
1748511 .
PMID
17778898 .
S2CID
20713222 .
Oyama, V. I.; Carle, G. C.; Woeller, F.; Pollack, J. B. (6 July 1979).
"Laboratory Corroboration of the Pioneer Venus Gas Chromatograph Analyses" . Science . 205 (4401): 52–54.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...52O .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.52 .
JSTOR
1748512 .
PMID
17778899 .
S2CID
40293580 .
Niemann, H. B.; Hartle, R. E.; Hedin, A. E.; Kasprzak, W. T.; Spencer, N. W.; Hunten, D. M.; Carignan, G. R. (6 July 1979).
"Venus Upper Atmosphere Neutral Gas Composition: First Observations of the Diurnal Variations" . Science . 205 (4401): 54–56.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...54N .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.54 .
JSTOR
1748513 .
PMID
17778900 .
S2CID
21839920 .
Pollack, James B.; Black, David C. (6 July 1979).
"Implications of the Gas Compositional Measurements of Pioneer Venus for the Origin of Planetary Atmospheres" . Science . 205 (4401): 56–59.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...56P .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.56 .
JSTOR
1748514 .
PMID
17778901 .
S2CID
13281057 .
Stewart, A. Ian; Barth, Charles A. (6 July 1979).
"Ultraviolet Night Airglow of Venus" . Science . 205 (4401): 59–62.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...59S .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.59 .
JSTOR
1748515 .
PMID
17778902 .
S2CID
12841902 .
Keating, G. M.; Taylor, F. W.; Nicholson, J. Y.; Hinson, E. W. (6 July 1979).
"Short-Term Cyclic Variations and Diurnal Variations of the Venus Upper Atmosphere" . Science . 205 (4401): 62–64.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...62K .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.62 .
JSTOR
1748516 .
PMID
17778903 .
S2CID
23057356 .
Taylor, F. W.; Diner, D. J.; Elson, L. S.; McCleese, D. J.; Martonchik, J. V.; Delderfield, J.; Bradley, S. P.; Schofield, J. T.; Gille, J. C.; Coffey, M. T. (6 July 1979).
"Temperature, Cloud Structure, and Dynamics of Venus Middle Atmosphere by Infrared Remote Sensing from Pioneer Orbiter" . Science . 205 (4401): 65–67.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...65T .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.65 .
JSTOR
1748517 .
PMID
17778904 .
S2CID
2023608 .
Blamont, Jacques; Ragent, Boris (6 July 1979).
"Further Results of the Pioneer Venus Nephelometer Experiment" . Science . 205 (4401): 67–70.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...67B .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.67 .
JSTOR
1748518 .
PMID
17778905 .
S2CID
19155512 .
Knollenberg, Robert G.; Hunten, D. M. (6 July 1979).
"Clouds of Venus: A Preliminary Assessment of Microstructure" . Science . 205 (4401): 70–74.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...70K .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.70 .
JSTOR
1748519 .
PMID
17778906 .
S2CID
36125836 .
Travis, L. D.; Coffeen, D. L.; Del Genio, A. D.; Hansen, J. E.; Kawabata, K.; Lacis, A. A.; Lane, W. A.; Limaye, S. S.; Rossow, W. B.; Stone, P. H. (6 July 1979). "Cloud Images from the Pioneer Venus Orbiter". Science . 205 (4401): 74–76.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...74T .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.74 .
JSTOR
1748520 .
PMID
17778907 .
S2CID
43906539 .
Pollack, James B.; Ragent, Boris; Boese, Robert; Tomasko, Martin G.; Blamont, Jacques; Knollenberg, Robert G.; Esposito, Larry W.; Stewart, A. Ian; Travis, Lawrence (6 July 1979).
"Nature of the Ultraviolet Absorber in the Venus Clouds: Inferences Based on Pioneer Venus Data" . Science . 205 (4401): 76–79.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...76P .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.76 .
JSTOR
1748521 .
PMID
17778908 .
S2CID
28250903 .
Tomasko, Martin G.; Doose, Lyn R.; Smith, Peter H. (6 July 1979).
"Absorption of Sunlight in the Atmosphere of Venus" . Science . 205 (4401): 80–82.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...80T .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.80 .
hdl :
2060/19830010359 .
JSTOR
1748522 .
PMID
17778909 .
S2CID
35649934 .
Suomi, V. E.; Sromovsky, L. A.; Revercomb, H. E. (6 July 1979).
"Preliminary Results of the Pioneer Venus Small Probe Net Flux Radiometer Experiment" . Science . 205 (4401): 82–85.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...82S .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.82 .
JSTOR
1748523 .
PMID
17778910 .
S2CID
22181310 .
Counselman, C. C.; Gourevitch, S. A.; King, R. W.; Loriot, G. B.; Prinn, R. G. (6 July 1979).
"Venus Winds Are Zonal and Retrograde Below the Clouds" . Science . 205 (4401): 85–87.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...85C .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.85 .
JSTOR
1748524 .
PMID
17778911 .
S2CID
39737494 .
Woo, Richard; Armstrong, J. W.; Kendall, William B. (6 July 1979).
"Measurements of Turbulence in the Venus Atmosphere Deduced from Pioneer Venus Multiprobe Radio Scintillations" . Science . 205 (4401): 87–89.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...87W .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.87 .
JSTOR
1748525 .
PMID
17778912 .
S2CID
10233431 .
Pettengill, Gordon H.; Ford, Peter G.; Brown, Walter E.; Kaula, William M.; Masursky, Harold; Eliason, Eric; McGill, George E. (6 July 1979).
"Venus: Preliminary Topographic and Surface Imaging Results from the Pioneer Orbiter" . Science . 205 (4401): 90–93.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...90P .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.90 .
JSTOR
1748526 .
PMID
17778913 .
S2CID
12582229 .
Phillips, Roger J.; Sjogren, William L.; Abbott, Elsa A.; Smith, John C.; Wimberly, Ray N.; Wagner, Cari A. (6 July 1979).
"Gravity Field of Venus: A Preliminary Analysis" . Science . 205 (4401): 93–96.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...93P .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.93 .
JSTOR
1748527 .
PMID
17778914 .
S2CID
21557337 .
Taylor, Harry A.; Brinton, Henry C.; Bauer, Siegfried J.; Hartle, Richard E.; Cloutier, Paul A.; Daniell, Robert E.; Donahue, Thomas M. (6 July 1979).
"Ionosphere of Venus: First Observations of Day-Night Variations of the Ion Composition" . Science . 205 (4401): 96–99.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...96T .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.96 .
JSTOR
1748528 .
PMID
17778915 .
S2CID
11269827 .
Kliore, A. J.; Patel, I. R.; Nagy, A. F.; Cravens, T. E.; Gombosi, T. I. (6 July 1979).
"Initial Observations of the Nightside Ionosphere of Venus from Pioneer Venus Orbiter Radio Occultations" . Science . 205 (4401): 99–102.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205...99K .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.99 .
JSTOR
1748529 .
PMID
17778916 .
S2CID
10322619 .
Brace, L. H.; Theis, R. F.; Niemann, H. B.; Mayr, H. G.; Hoegy, W. R.; Nagy, A. F. (6 July 1979).
"Empirical Models of the Electron Temperature and Density in the Nightside Venus Ionosphere" . Science . 205 (4401): 102–105.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205..102B .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.102 .
JSTOR
1748530 .
PMID
17778917 .
S2CID
25337442 .
Knudsen, W. C.; Spenner, K.; Whitten, R. C.; Spreiter, J. R.; Miller, K. L.; Novak, V. (6 July 1979).
"Thermal Structure and Energy Influx to the Day- and Nightside Venus Ionosphere" . Science . 205 (4401): 105–107.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205..105K .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.105 .
JSTOR
1748531 .
PMID
17778918 .
S2CID
26084728 .
Nagy, A. F.; Cravens, T. E.; Chen, R. H.; Taylor, H. A.; Brace, L. H.; Brinton, H. C. (6 July 1979).
"Comparison of Calculated and Measured Ion Densities on the Dayside of Venus" . Science . 205 (4401): 107–109.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205..107N .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.107 .
JSTOR
1748532 .
PMID
17778919 .
S2CID
28832064 .
Bauer, Siegfried J.; Donahue, Thomas M.; Hartle, Richard E.; Taylor, Harry A. (6 July 1979).
"Venus Ionosphere: Photochemical and Thermal Diffusion Control of Ion Composition" . Science . 205 (4401): 109–112.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205..109B .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.109 .
JSTOR
1748533 .
PMID
17778920 .
S2CID
32579568 .
Taylor, W. W. L.; Scarf, F. L.; Russell, C. T.; Brace, L. H. (6 July 1979).
"Absorption of Whistler Mode Waves in the Ionosphere of Venus" . Science . 205 (4401): 112–114.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205..112T .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.112 .
JSTOR
1748534 .
PMID
17778921 .
S2CID
45428203 .
Russell, C. T.; Elphic, R. C.; Slavin, J. A. (6 July 1979).
"Initial Pioneer Venus Magnetic Field Results: Nightside Observations" . Science . 205 (4401): 114–116.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205..114R .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.114 .
JSTOR
1748535 .
PMID
17778922 .
S2CID
24494352 .
Intriligator, D. S.; Collard, H. R.; Mihalov, J. D.; Whitten, R. C.; Wolfe, J. H. (6 July 1979).
"Electron Observations and Ion Flows from the Pioneer Venus Orbiter Plasma Analyzer Experiment" . Science . 205 (4401): 116–119.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205..116I .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.116 .
JSTOR
1748536 .
PMID
17778923 .
S2CID
42935022 .
Evans, W. D.; Glore, J. P.; Klebesadel, R. W.; Laros, J. G.; Tech, E. R.; Spalding, R. E. (6 July 1979).
"Gamma-Ray Burst Observations by Pioneer Venus Orbiter" . Science . 205 (4401): 119–121.
Bibcode :
1979Sci...205..119E .
doi :
10.1126/science.205.4401.119 .
JSTOR
1748537 .
PMID
17778924 .
S2CID
38916824 .
Early missions
Pioneer 11 at Saturn Later missions Venus missions Related
Active missions
Past missions
Orbiters Flybys Descent probes Landers Balloon probes Failed launches
Planned missions
Orbiters Flybys Descent probes
Proposed missions
Cancelled / concepts Program overviews Related
Missions are ordered by launch date. † indicates failure en route or before any data returned.
Payloads are separated by bullets ( · ), launches by pipes ( | ). Crewed flights are indicated in underline . Uncatalogued launch failures are listed in italics . Payloads deployed from other spacecraft are denoted in (brackets).