Naram-Sin, also transcribed Narām-Sîn or Naram-Suen (
Akkadian: 𒀭𒈾𒊏𒄠𒀭𒂗𒍪: DNa-ra-am DSîn, meaning "Beloved of the Moon God
Sîn", the "
𒀭" a determinative marking the name of a god), was a ruler of the
Akkadian Empire, who reigned
c. 2254–2218 BC (
middle chronology), and was the third successor and grandson of King
Sargon of Akkad. Under Naram-Sin the empire reached its maximum extent. He was the first Mesopotamian king known to have claimed divinity for himself, taking the title "God of Akkad", and the first to claim the title "
King of the Four Quarters". He became the patron city god of Akkade as
Enlil was in Nippur.[1] His enduring fame resulted in later rulers,
Naram-Sin of Eshnunna and
Naram-Sin of Assyria as well as Naram-Sin of Uruk, assuming the name.[2][3]
Biography
Naram-Sin was a son of
Manishtushu. He was thus a nephew of King
Rimush and grandson of Sargon and
Tashlultum. Naram-Sin's aunt was the High Priestess
En-hedu-ana. Most recensions of the Sumerian King List show him following Manishitshu but The Ur III version of the king list inverts the order of Rimush and Manishtushu.[4][5] To be fully correct, rather than Naram-Sin or Naram-Suen "in Old Akkadian, the name in question should rather be reconstructed as Naram-Suyin (more precisely, /narām-tsuyin/) or Naram-Suʾin (/narām-tsuʾin/)".[6]
Naram-Sin defeated Manium of Magan, and various northern hill tribes in the
Zagros,
Taurus, and
Amanus Mountains, expanding his empire up to the Mediterranean Sea. His "Victory Stele" depicts his triumph over Satuni, chief of
Lullubi in the
Zagros Mountains. The Sumerian King List gives the length of his reign as 56 years, and at least 20 of his year-names are known, referring to military actions against various places such as
Uruk and
Subartu. One unknown year was recorded as "the Year when Naram-Sin was victorious against
Simurrum in Kirasheniwe and took prisoner Baba the governor of Simurrum, and Dubul the ensi of Arame".[7][8] Other year names refer to his construction work on temples in
Akkad, Nippur, and
Zabala. He also built administrative centers at
Nagar and
Nineveh. In general it is not possible to assign an order to Naram-Sin's year name with the exception of his first "The year Naram-Sin received a weapon of heaven/An fr[om] the temple of the god Enlil". It is, however, possible to divide them into those before his deification and after that event (assumed to be shortly after the "Great Revolt") based on the presence of a godhood determinant in his name.
During his reign Namar-Sin increased direct royal control of its city-states. He maintained control over the various city-states by the simple expedient of appointing some of his many sons as key provincial governors, and his daughters as high priestesses. He also reformed the scribal system.[9][10]
A few loyal local governors remained in place. This included
Meskigal, as governor of the city-state of
Adab and Karsum governor of the unlocated Niqqum. Another was
Lugal-ushumgal of
Lagash. Several inscriptions of Lugal-ushumgal, who went on to serve the successor of Naram-Sin,
Shar-Kali-Sharri, are known, particularly seal impressions, which refer to him as governor of Lagash and at the time a vassal (𒀵, arad, "servant" or "slave") of Naram-Sin.[11]
The pivotal event of Naram-Sin's reign was a widespread revolt against the Akkadian Empire. The empire created by his grandfather, Sargon, first ruler of the Akkadian Empire stretched in the west to Syria in places like
Tell Brak and
Tell Leilan, to the east in Elam and associated polities in that region, to southern Anatolia in the north, and to the "lower sea" in the south encompassing all the traditional Sumerian powers like Uruk, Ur, and Lagash. All of these political entities had long histories as independent powers and would periodically re-assert their interests throughout the lifetime of the Akkadian Empire.[12]
At some point in his reign a widespread uprising occurred, a large coalition of city-states led by Iphur-Kis of
Kish (Sumer) and Amar-Girid of
Uruk, joined by Enlil-nizu of
Nippur, and including the city-states of "
Kutha, TiWA, Sippar,
Kazallu, Kiritab, [Api]ak and GN" as well as "Amorite [hi]ghlanders". The rebellion was joined by the city of
Borsippa, among others.[13][14] We know of these events from a number of Old Babylonian copies of earlier inscriptions as well as one contemporary record from the Old Akkadian period. The
Bassetki Statue, discovered in 1974, was the base of a life-sized copper statue of Naram-Sin. It reads:
"Naram-Sin, the mighty, king of Agade, when the four quarters together revolted against him, through the love which the goddess Astar showed him, he was victorious in nine battles in one in 1 year, and the kings whom they (the rebels[?]) had raised (against him), he captured. In view of the fact that he protected the foundations of his city from danger, (the citizens of his city requested from Astar in Eanna, Enlil in Nippur, Dagan in Tuttul, Ninhursag in Kes, Ea in Eridu, Sin in Ur, Samas in Sippar, (and) Nergal in Kutha, that (Naram-Sin) be (made) the god of their city, and they built within Agade a temple (dedicated) to him. As for the one who removes this inscription, may the gods Samas, Astar, Nergal, the bailiff of the king, namely all those gods (mentioned above) tear out his foundations and destroy his progeny."[15]
In the aftermath, Naram-Sin deified himself as well as posthumously deifying Sargon and Manishtushi but not his Rimush.[16][17] The echoes of the revolt were reflected in later Sumerian literary compositions such as the
Great Revolt against Naram-Sin, "Naram-Sin and the Enemy Hordes" and "Gula-AN and the Seventeen Kings against Naram-Sin".[18][19][20]
Control of Elam
Elam came under the domination of
Akkad in the time of
Sargon though it remained restive. The 2nd ruler of Akkad, Rimush,
campaigned there afterward adding "conqueror of Elam and Parahsum" to his royal titulary. The 3rd ruler, Manishtushu, conquered the city of
Anshan in
Elam and also the city of
Pashime, installing imperial governors in those places.[21]
Naram-Sin added "commander of all the land of Elam, as far as Parahsum," to his royal titulary. During his rule, "military governors of the country of Elam" (
shakkanakkus) with typically Akkadian names are known, such as Ili-ishmani or Epirmupi.[21][22][23][24] This suggests that these governors of Elam were officials of the Akkadian Empire.[21] Naram-Sin exercised great influence over Susa during his reign, building temples and establishing inscriptions in his name, and having the Akkadian language replace Elamite in official documents.[25]
An unknown Elamite king (sometimes speculated to be
Khita) is recorded as having signed a peace treaty, in Old Elamite language written in an Old Akkadian ductus, with Naram-Sin (not deified in the text), stating: "The enemy of Naram-Sin is my enemy, the friend of Naram-Sin is my friend".[26][27][28][29] Old Elamite is poorly understood (all other texts being very short) as yet making interpretation of the text challenging. The text mentions about twenty gods, mostly Elamite but with a few Sumerian and Akkadian, including
Inshushinak,
Humban,
Nahiti,
Simut, and
Pinikir. It has been suggested that the formal treaty allowed Naram-Sin to have peace on his eastern borders, so that he could deal more effectively with the threat from
Gutium.[30][31]
Conquest of Armanum and Ebla
The conquest of
Armanum (location unknown but proposed as
Tall Bazi) with its ruler Rid-Adad and
Ebla (55 kilometers southwest of modern Aleppo) by Naram-Sin (Ebla was also defeated by his grandfather Sargon) is known from one of his year names "The year the king went on a campaign in Amarnum" and from an Old Babylonian copy of a statue inscription (IM 85461) found at
Ur. There are also three objects, a marble lamp, a stone plaque, and a copper bowl, inscribed "Naram-Sin, the mighty, king of the four quarters, conqueror of Armanum and Ebla.".[32][33] In 2010 a new stele fragment (IM 221139) describing the campaign was found at
Tulul al-Baqarat (thought to be the ancient city of
Kesh.[6]
"Whereas, for all time since the creation of mankind, no king whosoever had destroyed Armanum and Ebla, the god Nergal, by means of (his) weapons opened the way for Naram-Sin, the mighty, and gave him Armanum and Ebla. Further, he gave to him the Amanus, the Cedar Mountain, and the Upper Sea. By means of the weapons of the god Dagan, who magnifies his kingship, Naram-Sin, the mighty, conquered Armanum and Ebla."
Among the known sons of Naram-Sin were his successor
Shar-Kali-Sharri, Nabi-Ulmaš, who was governor of
Tutub, and a Ukin-Ulmash. Excavations at
Tell Mozan (ancient Urkesh) brought to light a sealing of Tar'am-Agade, a previously unknown daughter of Naram-Sin, who was possibly married to an unidentified endan (ruler) of Urkesh.[34] A recently found cylinder seal, looted from
Urasagrig, shows that the governor there, Sharatigubishin, was also a son.[35] Other known children include Enmenana the "zirru priestess of the god Nanna, spouse of the god N[anna], entu priestess of the god Sin at Ur", Šumšani ēntum-priestess of
Shamash at Sippar, a son who was governor at Marad, an unnamed daughter who was ēntum-priestesses at Nippur, Bin-kali-šarrē, Lipit-ilē (governor at
Marad), Rigmuš-ālsu, Me-Ulmaš, and Ukēn-Ulmaš and a granddaughter Lipus-ia-um.[36][37] One daughter, Tuṭṭanabšum (Tudanapšum), held the position of high priestess of Enlil at Nippur, the most important religious position in the empire. She was also deified, the only female and only non-king to be made a god.[38][39]
Naram-Sin stele, inscription of Naram-Sin in the
Akkadian language. The name Naram-Sin (𒀭𒈾𒊏𒄠𒀭𒂗𒍪) appears vertically in the upper right.
Naram-Sin's
Victory Stele depicts him as a god-king (symbolized by his horned helmet) climbing a mountain above his soldiers, and his enemies, the defeated
Lullubi led by their king
Satuni. The stele was broken off at the top apparently when it was carried away from
Sippar and carried off by the
Elamite forces of
Shutruk-Nakhunte in the 12th century BC along with a number of other monuments.[40] The stele seems to break from tradition by using successive diagonal tiers to communicate the story to viewers, however the more traditional horizontal frames are visible on smaller broken pieces.[41] It has been suggested that it contains the first depictions of
battle standards and
plate armor.[42] The stele is 200 centimeters tall and 105 centimeters wide and is made from pinkish limestone. For contrast see the
Victory Stele of Rimush over Lagash or the Victory stele of
Sargon.[43][44] The stele was found by
Jacques de Morgan at
Susa, and is now in the
Louvre Museum (Sb 4).[45]
The inscription over the head of the king is in the
Akkadian language and very fragmentary, but reads:
"[Nar]am-Sin, the mighty, <Lacuna> ..., Sidu[r-x] (and) the highlanders of Lullubum assembled together ... bat[tle]. For/to <Lacuna> the high[landers ...] <Lacuna> [heap]ed up [a burial mound over them], ... (and) dedicated (this object) [to the god ...] <Lacuna> [15]
"I am Shutruk-Nahhunte, son of Hallutush-Inshushinak, beloved servant of the god
Inshushinak, king of Anshan and Susa, who has enlarged the kingdom, who takes care of the lands of Elam, the lord of the land of Elam. When the god Inshusinak gave me the order, I defeated
Sippar. I took the stele of Naram-Sin and carried it off, bringing it to the land of Elam. For Inshushinak, my god, I set it as an offering."[46]
A similar stele fragment (ES 1027), 57 centimeters high by 42 centimeters wide by 20 deep, depicting Naram-Sin was found a few miles north-east of
Diarbekr, at Pir Hüseyin in a well, though this was not its original context. It is said to have been first found Miyafarkin, a village about 75 kilometers northeast of Diarbekr.[47]
Fragments of an alabaster stele representing captives being led by Akkadian soldiers is sometimes attributed to Narim-Sin (or
Rimush or
Manishtushu) on stylistic grounds.[48] In particular, it is considered as more sophisticated graphically than the steles of
Sargon of Akkad or those of Rimush or Manishitshu.[48] Two fragments (IM 55639 and IM 59205) are in the
National Museum of Iraq, and one (MFA 66.89) is the
Boston Museum.[48] The stele is quite fragmentary, but attempts at reconstitution have been made.[49][48] Depending on sources, the fragments were excavated in
Wasit, al-Hay district,
Wasit Governorate, or in
Nasiriyah, both locations in Iraq.[50]
It is thought that the stele represents the result of the campaigns of Naram-Sin to
Cilicia or
Anatolia. This is suggested by the characteristics of the booty carried by the soldiers in the stele, especially the metal vessel carried by the main soldier, the design of which is unknown in Mesopotamia, but on the contrary well known in contemporary Anatolia.[48]
Soldier with sword, on the Nasiriyah stele of Naram-Sin
Naked captives, on the Nasiriyah stele of Naram-Sin
The Curse of Akkad
One Mesopotamian myth, a historiographic poem entitled "The curse of Akkad: the Ekur avenged", explains how the empire created by
Sargon of Akkad fell and the city of Akkad was destroyed. The myth was written hundreds of years after Naram-Sin's life and is the poet's attempt to explain how the Gutians succeeded in conquering Sumer. After an opening passage describing the glory of Akkad before its destruction, the poem tells of how Naram-Sin angered the chief god
Enlil by plundering the
Ekur (Enlil's temple in
Nippur.) In his rage, Enlil summoned the
Gutians down from the hills east of the Tigris, bringing plague, famine and death throughout Mesopotamia.
Food prices became vastly inflated, with the poem stating that 1 lamb would buy only half a sila (about 425 ml or 14.4 US fl oz) of grain, half a sila of oil, or half a mina (about 250 g or 8.8 oz) of wool.[51] To prevent this destruction, eight of the gods (namely
Inanna,
Enki,
Sin,
Ninurta,
Utu,
Ishkur,
Nusku, and
Nidaba) decreed that the city of Akkad should be destroyed in order to spare the rest of Sumer and cursed it. The story ends with the poet writing of Akkad's fate, mirroring the words of the gods' curse earlier on:
Its chariot roads grew nothing but the 'wailing plant, Moreover, on its canalboat towpaths and landings, No human being walks because of the wild goats, vermin, snakes, and mountain scorpions, The plains where grew the heart-soothing plants, grew nothing but the 'reed of tears, Akkad, instead of its sweet-flowing water, there flowed bitter water, Who said "I would dwell in that" found not a good dwelling place, Who said "I would lie down in Akkad" found not a good sleeping place.
Cuneiform account of the excavation of a foundation deposit belonging to Naram-Sin (ruled
c. 2200 BC), by king
Nabonidus (ruled
c. 550 BC).
A
foundation deposit of Naram-Sin was discovered and analysed by king
Nabonidus, circa 550 BC.[52] who Robert Silverberg thus characterises as the first archaeologist. Not only did he lead the first excavations which were to find the foundation deposits of the temples of Šamaš the sun god, the warrior goddess Anunitu (both located in
Sippar), and the sanctuary that Naram-Sin built to the moon god, located in
Harran, but he also had them restored to their former glory.[53] He was also the first to date an archaeological artefact in his attempt to date Naram-Sin's temple during his search for it. His estimate was inaccurate by about 1,500 years.[54]
In popular culture
King Naram-Sin is a character in the 2021
video gameHouse of Ashes, with the main plot occurring in his personal temple.[55] In the game, he is the self-proclaimed "God King" of Akkad, and is engaged in a war with the
Gutians after being cursed by the god
Enlil; whom he angered after the sacking his temple. Naram-Sin was voiced and motion captured by Sami Karim.
In the 2021 mobile
gacha gameBlue Archive, Volume F, the innermost chamber of the large floating quantum supercomputer known as the "Ark of
Atra-Hasis" (itself a reference to the Akkadian myth) is named "Throne of Naram-Sin".
Artifacts of Naram-Sin
Seals in the name of Naram-Sin
Stele of the Akkadian king Naram-Sin. The "-ra-am" and "-sin" parts of the name "Naram-Sin" appear in the broken top right corner of the inscription.
Istanbul Archaeological Museum.
Portrait of Naram-Sin (detail)
The name "Naram-Sin" in cuneiform on an inscription. The star symbol "
𒀭" is a silent honorific for "Divine",
Sîn (Moon God) is specially written with the characters "EN-ZU" (𒂗𒍪).
Alabaster vase in the name of "Naran-Sin, King of the four regions" '(𒀭𒈾𒊏𒄠𒀭𒂗𒍪 𒈗 𒆠𒅁𒊏𒁴 𒅈𒁀𒅎 DNa-ra-am DSîn lugal ki-ibratim arbaim), limestone,
c. 2250 BC. Louvre Museum AO 74.[56]
"Naran-Sin, King of the four regions" '(𒀭𒈾𒊏𒄠𒀭𒂗𒍪 𒈗 𒆠𒅁𒊏𒁴 𒅈𒁀𒅎 DNa-ra-am DSîn lugal ki-ibratim arbaim), limestone,
c. 2250 BC. Louvre Museum AO 74.[56]
This bronze head traditionally attributed to
Sargon is now thought to actually belong to his grandson Naram-Sin.<r[48]
Fragment of a stone bowl with an inscription of Naram-Sin, and a second inscription by
Shulgi (upside down). Ur, Iraq. British Museum.[57][58]
Gold foil in the name of Naram-Sin.
Copy of an inscription of Naram-Sin. Louvre Museum AO 5475
Diorite base of statue of Naram-sin
Fragment of a statue in the name of Naram-Sin, Louvre Museum Sb 53
Rock relief image at Darband-i-Gawr originally thought to be of Naram-Sin but since in dispute.[59][60]
"Naram-Sin, king of the four quarters, dedicated (this mace) to the goddess Ishtar at Nippur"
Victory Stele of Naram-Sin,
c. 2230 BC. It shows him defeating the Lullibi, a tribe in the
Zagros Mountains, and their king
Satuni, trampling them and spearing them. Satuni, standing right, is imploring Naram-Sin to save him.[61] Naram-Sin is also twice the size of his soldiers.
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