Simurrum (
Akkadian: đđŹđšđđ : Si-mu-ur-ri-im)[1] was an important city state of the
Mesopotamian area from around 2000 BCE to 1500 BCE, during the period of the
Akkadian Empire down to
Ur III. The Simurrum Kingdom disappears from records after the
Old Babylonian period.[2] It is thought that in Old Babylonian times its name was Zabban, a notable cult center of
Adad.[3][4] It was neighbor and sometimes ally with the
Lullubi kingdom.[5]
History
The Simurrum Kingdom seems to have been part of a belt of
Hurrian city states in the northeastern portion of Mesopotamian area.[6][2] They were often in conflict with the rulers of Ur III.[2][7]
Several Kings (
đ, pronounced Ć Ă r, "Shar", in
Akkadian)[8] of Simurrum are known, such as
Iddin-Sin and his son Zabazuna.[9][2] Various inscriptions suggest that they were contemporary with king
Ishbi-Erra (
c. 1953 â c. 1920 BCE).[7] Another king, mentioned in The Great Revolt against NarÄm-SĂźn, was mPu-ut-ti-ma-da-al.[10]
Several inscriptions suggest that Simurrum was quite powerful, and shed some light on the conflicts around the
Zagros area, another such example being the
Anubanini rock relief of the nearby
Lullubi Kingdom.[2] Four inscriptions and a relief (now in the
Israel Museum) of the Simurrum have been identified at Bitwata near
Ranya in
Iraq, and one from
Sarpol-e Zahab in
Iran.[7][11][12]
The Simurrun were regularly in conflict with the
Akkadian Empire. The names of four years of the reign of
Sargon of Akkad describe his campaigns against
Elam, Mari, Simurrum, and Uru'a (an Elamite city-state):[13][14]
â Known regnal year names of Sargon.[15][14][16]
One unknown year during the reign of
Akkadian Empire king
Naram-Sin of Akkad was recorded as "the Year when Naram-Sin was victorious against Simurrum in Kirasheniwe and took prisoner Baba the governor of Simurrum, and Dubul the ensi (ruler) of Arame".[17][18] Arame is known to be associated with
Eshnunna. An Old Babylonian letter also associates Simurrum with Eshnunna. This suggests Simurrum was in the area of that city.[19]
Ka-Nisba, king of Simurrum, instigated the people of Simurrum and
Lullubi to revolt. Amnili, general of [the enemy Lullubi]... made the land [rebel]... Erridu-pizir, the mighty, king of Gutium and of the four quarters hastened [to confront] him... In a single day he captured the pass of
Urbillum at Mount Mummum. Further, he captured Nirishuha.
At one point, Simurrum may have become a vassal of the
Gutians.[2]
The Ur III empire was frequently in conflict with the city. A year name of the second ruler, Shulgi, was "Year Simurrum and Lullubum were destroyed for the ninth time". In one of these conflicts Shulgi captured the ruler of Sumurrum, Tabban-darah, and sent him to exile in
Drehem. Sillus-Dagan is known to have been a governor of Simurrum under Ur III at the time of ruler Amar-Sin.[20][21] It has been suggested that he was an Amorite.[22] Four texts from Drehem with seals mentioning him have been found, including:
"Sillus-Dagan, governor of Simurrum: Ilak-sĂŒqir, son of Alu, the chief administrator,(is) your servant."[23]
During the rule of Su-Sin in the waning years of the Ur III Empire an administrator assigned to build the Mardu Wall reported "When I sent for word (to the area) between the two mountains it was brought to my attention that the Mardu were camped in the mountains. Simurrum had come to their aid. (Therefore) I proceeded to (the area) "between" the mountain range(s) of Ebih in order to do battle".[23]
Military struggles continues up to the time of the final ruler of Ur III,
Ibbi-Sin.[24]
Simurrum seems to have become independent after the collapse of
Ur III.[7]
In order to make peace with a fellow ruler Turukki leader Zaziya (Ur III period) handed over a ruler of Simurrum:
"Zaziya took his children ["grandchildren"] and led them to Zazum of Qutu as hostages (ana yaltiti ... usn). He transported tribute [there]. Zaziya turned him over (ittadinsu) to Zazum of Qutu the king of Simurrum who (once) attended Zazum but had escaped to Zaziya."[25]
Rulers of Simurrum
The petty kings and governors of the kinglet or province of Simurrum.
Akkadian Period, Early Bronze IVA
Ka-Nisba of Simurrum, instigated Simurrum and Lullubi to revolt against the Gutian ruler Erridu-Pizir.
An early Assyriologist suggested Simurrum was near "Tell 'Ali" which is not far from mouth of the Lower Zab on its left bank and is on the direct line from Assur to Arrapha (Kirkuk), which it is 42 kilometres (26 mi) west of, saying "The region south of Tell 'Ali has never been examined by archaeologists, but seems to contain numerous ruined towns and canals".[26] Twenty five cuneiform tablets from the Middle Assyrian period were found at the site.[27][28]
The site of Qala Shirwana, a large mound 30 metres (98 ft) tall with an additional 10-metre (33 ft) citadel at the top in the southern basin of the Diyala river, on its west bank, near the modern town of
Kalar, has been suggested as the site of Simurrum.[29] The upper mound has an area of 5.5 hectares. While the site is completely built over now, early satellite photographs indicate that there was a 100 hectare lower town. Second millennium BC pottery is often found during construction.[30]
A complication is that when a city-state captured large numbers of soldiers etc. they were sometimes placed in rural settlements named after their origin, a practice that continued into Neo-Babylonian times. There were settlements near
Girsu/
Lagash named Lullubu(na) and Ć imurrum for example.[31]
A number of texts closely link Karaáž«ar and Simurrum and they are thought to be in the same area. Karaáž«ar is thought to be between Simurrum and Eshnunna.[32] One of Sulgi's late year names was "Year Karaáž«ar was defeated for the second time".[33] Two ensis of Karaáž«ar under the Ur III empire are known, Ea-rabi and Arad-Nanna.[34]
Gallery
King
Iddin-Sin of the Kingdom of Simurrum, holding an axe and a bow, trampling a foe (
c. 2000 BCE).
Israel Museum.
Stela of Iddi-Sin, King of Simurrum. It dates back to the Old-Babylonian Period. From Qarachatan Village, Sulaymaniyah Governorate, Iraqi Kurdistan. The
Sulaymaniyah Museum, Iraq
Sarpol-e Zahab, relief I. Beardless warrior with axe, trampling a foe. Sundisk above. A name "Zaba(zuna), son of ..." can be read. He is usually considered as a ruler of the
Lullubi,[35][36] but he could be a ruler of the Kingdom of Simurrum, son of
Iddin-Sin.[7]
Outline of relief I (extracted). Beardless warrior with axe, trampling a foe. Sundisk above. A name "Zaba(zuna), son of ..." can be read.[35]
See also
Anobanini rock relief â Rock relief from the Isin-Larsa periodPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
^Seidl, U., Das Relief, in A. Shaffer and N. Wasserman, Iddi(n)-Sin, King of Simurrum: A New Rock Relief Inscription and a Reverential Seal, ZA 93, 39-52, 2003
^J. G. Westenholz, "Legends of the Kings of Akkade", Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1997
^Cohen, Mark E., "A New Naram-Sin Date Formula.", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 227â32, 1986
^Finkelstein, J. J., "Subartu and Subarians in Old Babylonian Sources", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1â7, 1955
^Owen, David I., and S. Graziani, "The royal gift seal of áčąilluĆĄ-Dagan, Governor of Simurrum." Studi sul Vicino Oriente antico dedicati alla memoria di Luigi Cagni 61, pp.815-846, 2000
^Meijer, Diederik J. W., "Marginal and Steppic Areas as Sources for Archaeological Debate: A Case for âActive Symbiosisâ of Town and Country", Constituent, Confederate, and Conquered Space: The Emergence of the Mittani State, edited by Eva Cancik-Kirschbaum, Nicole Brisch and Jesper Eidem, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 163-178, 2014
^
abFrayne, Douglas, "Ć Ć«-SĂźn E3/2.1.4", in Ur III Period (2112-2004 BC), Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 285-360, 1997
^Jacobsen, Thorkild., "The Reign of Ibbī-Suen.". Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 7, no. 2, 1953
^Sasson, Jack M., "Scruples: Extradition in the Mari Archives", Wiener Zeitschrift FĂŒr Die Kunde Des Morgenlandes, vol. 97, pp. 453â73, 2007
^[3]Albright, W. F., "Notes on the Topography of Ancient Mesopotamia", Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 46, pp. 220â30, 1926
^Ismail, Bahijah Kh., and J. Nicholas Postgate, "A Middle Assyrian Flock-Master's Archive from Tell Ali", Iraq, vol. 70, pp. 147â78, 2008
^Ismail, Bahijah Kh., "Informationen iiber Tontafeln aus Tell-Ali", in H. Klengel (ed.), Gesellschaft und Kultu im alten Vorderasien, Schriften zur Geschichte und Kultur des alten Orients 15, Berlin, 1982
^[4]Casana, Jesse, and Claudia Glatz, "The land behind the land behind Baghdad: archaeological landscapes of the upper Diyala (Sirwan) river valley", Iraq, vol. 79, pp. 47â69, 2017
^[5]Glatz, Claudia, and Jesse Casana, "Of highland-lowland borderlands: Local societies and foreign power in the Zagros-Mesopotamian interface", Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 44, pp. 127-147, 2016
^Ghobadizadeh, Hamzeh and Sallaberger, Walther, "Ć ulgi in the Kuhdasht Plain: Bricks from a Battle Monument at the Crossroads of Western Pish-e Kuh and the Localisation of KimaĆĄ and ážȘurti", Zeitschrift fĂŒr Assyriologie und vorderasiatische ArchĂ€ologie, vol. 113, no. 1, pp. 3-33, 2023
^Al-Mutawalli, Nawala, Sallaberger, Walther and Shalkham, Ali Ubeid, "The Cuneiform Documents from the Iraqi Excavation at Drehem", Zeitschrift fĂŒr Assyriologie und vorderasiatische ArchĂ€ologie, vol. 107, no. 2, pp. 151-217, 2017
^Owen, David I., "Transliterations, Translations, and Brief Comments", The Nesbit Tablets, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 13-110, 2016