Islam arrived in
Kerala, the
Malayalam-speaking region in the south-western tip of India, through Middle Eastern merchants.[8][9] The Indian coast has an ancient relation with West Asia and the Middle East, even during the pre-Islamic period.
Kerala Muslims or Malayali Muslims from north Kerala are generally referred to as
Mappilas. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that forms the Muslim population of Kerala.[10] According to some scholars, the Mappilas are the oldest settled Muslim community in South Asia.[8][9] As per some studies, the term "Mappila" denotes not a single community but a variety of Malayali Muslims from Kerala (former
Malabar District) of different origins.[11][10] Native Muslims of
Kerala were known as Mouros da Terra, or Mouros Malabares in medieval period. Settled foreign Muslims of Kerala were known as Mouros da Arabia/Mouros de Meca.[12] Unlike the common misconception, the
caste system does exist among the Muslims of Kerala.[13]
Muslims in Kerala share a common language (
Malayalam) with the rest of the non-Muslim population and have a culture commonly regarded as the Malayali culture.[14] Islam is the second largest practised religion in Kerala (26.56%) next to
Hinduism.[15] The calculated Muslim population (Indian Census, 2011) in Kerala state is 8,873,472.[1][8] Most of the Muslims in Kerala follow
Sunni Islam of
Shāfiʿī School of thought, while a large minority follow modern movements (such as
Salafism) that developed within
Sunni Islam.[16][10]
History
Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000 BCE, according to
Sumerian records and it is still referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India".[17][18]: 79 Kerala's spices attracted ancient
Arabs,
Babylonians,
Assyrians and
Egyptians to the Malabar Coast in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE.
Phoenicians established trade with Kerala during this period.[19]Arabs and
Phoenicians were the first to enter
Malabar Coast to trade
Spices.[19] The Arabs on the coasts of
Yemen,
Oman, and the
Persian Gulf, must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other
eastern countries.[19] They must have brought the
Cinnamon of Kerala to the
Middle East.[19] The Greek historian
Herodotus (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians.[19]
The known earliest mention about
Muslims of Kerala is in the
Quilon Syrian copper plates of 9th century CE, granted by the ruler of
Kollam.[37] A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable
Muslim population in the
Malabar Coast. Arab writers such as
Al-Masudi of
Baghdad (896–956 AD),
Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100–1165 AD),
Abulfeda (1273–1331 AD), and
Al-Dimashqi (1256–1327 AD) mention the Muslim communities in Kerala.[38] Some historians assume that the
Mappilas can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community in
South Asia.[31][39]Al-Biruni (973–1048 CE) appears to be the first writer to call
Malabar Coast as Malabar.[40] Authors such as
Ibn Khordadbeh and
Al-Baladhuri mention Malabar ports in their works.[41] The Arab writers had called this place Malibar, Manibar, Mulibar, and Munibar. Malabar is reminiscent of the word Malanad which means the land of hills.[3] According to
William Logan, the word Malabar comes from a combination of the
Dravidian word Mala (hill) and the
Persian/
Arabic word Barr (country/continent).[3] The
Kodungallur Mosque, has a granite foundation exhibiting 11th–12th century architectural style.[41] The
Arabic inscription on a copper slab within the
Madayi Mosque in
Kannur records its foundation year as 1124 CE.[42][36][41]
The monopoly of overseas spice trade from
Malabar Coast was safe with the West Asian shipping magnates of Kerala ports.[43] The Muslims were a major financial power to be reckoned with in the kingdoms of Kerala and had great political influence in the
Hindu royal courts.[44][43] Travellers have recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala.[8] Immigration, intermarriage and missionary activity/conversion — secured by the common interest in the spice trade — helped in this development.[9][11] The Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque contains an
Old Malayalam inscription written in a mixture of Vatteluttu and
Grantha scripts which dates back to 10th century CE.[45] It is a rare surviving document recording patronage by a
Hindu king (Bhaskara Ravi) to the
Muslims of Kerala.[45] A 13th century granite inscription, written in a mixture of Old Malayalam and
Arabic, at
Muchundi Mosque in
Kozhikode mentions a donation by the king to the mosque.[46]
The
Moroccan traveller
Ibn Battutah (14th century) has recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala.[2] By the early decades of the 14th century, travellers speak of
Calicut (Kozhikode) as the major port city in Kerala.[11] Some of the important administrative positions in the kingdom of
Zamorin of Calicut, such as that of the port commissioner, were held by
Muslims.[47] The port commissioner, the Shah Bandar, represented commercial interests of the Muslim merchants. In his account, Ibn Battutah mentions Shah Bandars in
Calicut as well as
Quilon (Ibrahim Shah Bandar and Muhammed Shah Bandar).[2][47] The
Ali Rajas of
Arakkal kingdom, based at
Kannur, ruled the
Lakshadweep Islands.[40]Arabs had the monopoly of trade in
Malabar Coast and
Indian Ocean until the
PortugueseAge of Discovery.[40] The "nakhudas", merchant magnates owning ships, spread their shipping and trading business interests across the Indian Ocean.[11][9]
The arrival of the
Portuguese explorers in the late 15th century checked the then well-established and wealthy Muslim community's progress.[48] Following the discovery of sea route from
Europe to
Kozhikode in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled the seas between
Ormus and the
Malabar Coast and south to
Ceylon.[49][50] The Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen written by
Zainuddin Makhdoom II (born around 1532) of
Ponnani during 16th-century CE is the first-ever known book fully based on the history of Kerala, written by a Keralite. It is written in
Arabic and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy of
Kunjali Marakkar alongside the
Zamorin of Calicut from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonize
Malabar coast.[51] It was first printed and published in
Lisbon. A copy of this edition has been preserved in the library of
Al-Azhar University,
Cairo.[52][53][54]Tuhfatul Mujahideen also describes the history of
MappilaMuslim community of Kerala as well as the general condition of
Malabar Coast in the 16th century CE.[52] With the end of
Portuguese era,
Arabs lost their monopoly of trade in
Malabar Coast.[40] As the Portuguese tried to establish monopoly in spice trade, bitter naval battles with the zamorin ruler of Calicut became a common sight.[55][56] The Portuguese naval forces attacked and looted the Muslim dominated port towns in the Kerala.[57][58] Ships containing trading goods were drowned, often along with the crew. This activities, in the long run, resulted in the Muslims losing control of the spice trade they had dominated for more than five hundred years. Historians note that in the post-Portuguese period, once-rich Muslim traders turned inland (southern interior Malabar) in search of alternative occupations to commerce.[48]
By the mid-18th century the majority of the Muslims of Kerala were landless labourers, poor fishermen and petty traders, and the community was in "a psychological retreat".[48] The community tried to reverse the trend during the
Mysore invasion of Malabar District (late 18th century).[59] The victory of the
English East India Company and princely Hindu confederacy in 1792 over the Kingdom of Mysore placed the Muslims once again in economical and cultural subjection.[48][60] The subsequent partisan rule of British authorities throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries brought the landless Muslim peasants of Malabar District into a condition of destitution, and this led to a series of uprisings (against the Hindu landlords and British administration). The series of violence eventually exploded as the
Mappila Uprising (1921–22).[48][61][14][62] The Muslim material strength - along with modern education, theological reform, and active participation in democratic process - recovered slowly after the 1921-22 Uprising. The Muslim numbers in state and central government posts remained staggeringly low. The Muslim literacy rate was only 5% in 1931.[9]
A large number of Muslims of Kerala found extensive employment in the
Persian Gulf countries in the following years (c. 1970s). This widespread participation in the "Gulf Rush" produced huge economic and social benefits for the community. A great influx of funds from the earnings of the employed followed. Issues such as widespread poverty, unemployment, and educational backwardness began to change.[8] The Muslims in Kerala are now considered as section of Indian Muslims marked by recovery, change, and positive involvement in the modern world. Malayali Muslim women are now not reluctant to join professional vocations and assuming leadership roles.[9]University of Calicut, with the former Malabar District being its major catchment area, was established in 1968.[63]Calicut International Airport, currently the twelfth busiest airport in India, was inaugurated in 1988.[64][65] An
Indian Institute of Management (IIM) was established at Kozhikode in 1996.[66]
Demography
The last Indian Census was conducted in 2011. According to the
2011 Census of India, the district-wise distribution of the Muslim population is as shown below:[67]
Most of the Muslims of Kerala follow
Sunni Islam of
Shāfiʿī school of religious law (known in Kerala as the traditionalist 'Sunnis') while a large minority follow modern movements that developed within
Sunni Islam.[8][9] The latter section consists of majority
Salafists (the Mujahids) and the minority
Islamists. Both the traditional Sunnis and Mujahids again have been divided to sub-identities.[68][8][9]
Ahmadiyya Muslim Jama'at – Head Quarters of
Ahmadiyya Muslim Community in Kerala is located at Baitul Quddoos,[70] G.H Road Kozhikode (Calicut).
Ahmadiyya Muslim Community.
Communities
Mappilas: The largest community among the Muslims of Kerala.[10] As per some studies, the term "Mappila" denotes not a single community but a variety of Malayali Muslims from north Kerala (former Malabar District) of different ethnic origins. In south Kerala Malayali Muslims are not called Mappilas.[10]
A Mappila is either,
A descendant of any native convert[71]) to Islam[10][72] (or)
A descendant of a marriage alliance between a
Middle Eastern individual and a native low caste woman[10][73]
The term Mappila is still in use in Malayalam to mean "bridegroom" or "son-in-law".[10]
Pusalans: Mostly converts from the
Mukkuvan caste. Formerly a low status group among the Muslims of Kerala.[74] The other Mappilas used call them "Kadappurattukar", while themselves were known as "Angadikkar". The Kadappurattukar were divided into two endogamous groups on the basis of their occupation, "Valakkar" and "Bepukar". The Bepukar were considered superior to Valakkar.[10]
In addition to the two endogamous groups there were other service castes like "Kabaru Kilakkunnavar", "Alakkukar", and "Ossans" in Pusalan settlements. Ossan occupied the lowest position in the old hierarchy.[10]
Ossans: the Ossans were the traditional barbers among the Muslims of Kerala. Formed the lowest rank in the old hierarchy, and were an indispensable part of the village community of Muslims of Kerala.[10]
Thangals (the
Sayyids): Claiming descent from the family of
Muhammed. People who had migrated from Middle East. Elders of a number of widely respected
Thangal families often served as the focal point of the Muslim community in old Malabar District.[10]
Vattakkolis (the Bhatkalis) or
Navayats: ancient community of Muslims, claiming Arab origin, originally settled at Bhatkal, Uttara Kannada. Speaks Navayati language. Once distributed in the towns of northern Kerala as a mercantile community. They are mainly distributed in the Northern parts of Malabar bordering
Karnataka.[10]
Nahas: The origin of the name Naha is supposed to be a transformation of "nakhuda" which means captain of ship. Community concentrated mainly in
Parappanangadi, south of Kozhikode who trace their origins to
Persian ship owners.[10][76]
Marakkars: once multilingual maritime trading community settled in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, the Palk Strait and Sri Lanka. The most famous of the Marakkar were "
Kunjali Marakkars", or the naval captains of the
Zamorin of Calicut. The Muslims of pure Middle Eastern descent held themselves superior to Marakkars.[10]
Koyas: Muslim community, in the city of Kozhikode forming a significant majority in Kozhikode and its adjoining areas. May be of
Omani origin. It is said that the name is a corruption of “Khawaja”. Held administrative positions in the Kozhikode court of the zamorins.[10][78]
Kurikkals: a community of Muslims, claiming Arab origin, settled around
Manjeri in Malappuram District.The family was first settled in Mavvancheri in North Malabar and moved to Manjeri in the beginning of the 16th century. Many of the members of the family served as instructor in the use of fire-arms in the employ of various chiefs of Malabar.[10]
Nainars: a community of Tamil origin. Settled only in
Cochin,
Mattanchery,
Fort Kochi and
Kodungallur. It is believed that the Nainars first settled in Kerala in the 15th century, entering into contract for certain works with the chiefs of Cochin.[10]
Dakhnis or Pathans: "
Dakhni" speaking community. Migrated as cavalry men under various chiefs, especially in South Travancore. Some of them came South India along with the invasion of the Coromandel by the
Khaljis. Many of the Dakhnis had also come as traders and businessmen.[10]
Kutchi Memons: They are a
Kutchi speaking Gujarati ethnic group from the
Kutch region. They are descended from the
Lohana community among Gujarati Hindus.They were mainly traders who had migrated to Central Kerala with the other Gujarati traders.[79][80]
Beary/Byary: Muslims: community Stretching along the Tulunadu region. In Kerala they inhabits the coastal area of Kasargod district.They speak their own tongue which is called
Beary language. They are originally mercantile community, hece the name 'beary', from the Sanskrit word 'Vyapari'(merchant).
Mappila Songs (or Mappila Poems) is a famous
folklore tradition emerged in c. 16th century. The ballads are compiled in complex blend of Dravidian (Malayalam/Tamil) and Arabic, Persian/Urdu in a modified Arabic script.[82] Mappila songs have a distinct cultural identity, as they sound a mix of the ethos and culture of Dravidian South India as well as West Asia. They deal with themes such as religion, satire, romance, heroism, and politics. Moyinkutty Vaidyar (1875–91) is generally considered as the poet laureate of Mappila Songs.[9]
As the modern Malayali Muslim literature developed after the 1921–22 Uprising, religious publications dominated the field.[9]
Vaikom Muhammad Basheer (1910–1994), followed by, U. A. Khader, K. T. Muhammed, N. P. Muhammed and Moidu Padiyath are leading Kerala Muslim authors of the modern age.[9] Muslim periodical literature and newspaper dailies – all in Malayalam – are also extensive and critically read among the Muslims. The newspaper known as "
Chandrika", founded in 1934, played as significant role in the development of the Muslim community.[9]
Kerala Muslim folk arts
Oppana was a popular form of social entertainment. It was generally performed by a group of women, as a part of wedding ceremonies a day before the wedding day. The bride, dressed in all finery, covered with gold ornaments, is the chief "spectator"; she sits on a pitham, around which the singing and dancing take place. While the women sing, they clap their hands rhythmically and move around the bride in steps.
Kolkkali was a dance form popular among the Muslims. It was performed by a group of dozen young men with two sticks, similar to the
Dandiya dance of Gujarat in Western India.
Duff Muttu[83] (also called Dubh Muttu) was an art form prevalent among Muslims, using the traditional duff, or
daf, also called tappitta. Performers dance to the rhythm as they beat the duff.
Arabana muttu was an art form named after the aravana, a hand-held, one-sided flat tambourine or drumlike musical instrument. It is made of wood and animal skin, similar to the duff but a little thinner and bigger.
Muttum Viliyum was a traditional orchestral musical performance. It is basically the confluence of three musical instruments—kuzhal, chenda and cheriya chenda. Muttum Viliyum is also known by the name "Cheenimuttu".
Vattappattu was an art form once performed in the Malabar region on the eve of the wedding. It was traditionally performed by a group of men from the groom’s side with the putiyappila (the groom) sitting in the middle.
The
Mappila cuisine is a blend of traditional
Kerala,
Persian,
Yemenese and
Arab food culture.[84] This confluence of culinary cultures is best seen in the preparation of most dishes.[84]Kallummakkaya (
mussels)
curry, irachi puttu (irachi meaning meat), parottas (soft flatbread),[84]Pathiri (a type of rice pancake)[84] and ghee rice are some of the other specialties. The characteristic use of spices is the hallmark of Mappila cuisine—
black pepper,
cardamom and
clove are used profusely.
The
Malabar version of biryani, popularly known as kuzhi mandi in
Malayalam is another popular item, which has an influence from
Yemen. Various varieties of biriyanis like
Thalassery biriyani, Kannur biriyani,[85] Kozhikode biriyani[86] and Ponnani biriyani[87] are prepared by the Mappila community.[84]
According to K. Mohammed Basheer, Kerala has one of the oldest madrasa (Malayalam: othupalli / Palli Dar) education systems in India which has been reformed in modern times to include non-religious and religious subjects.[90] Muslim communities, specifically
Mappilas, form literate communities amongst Muslims in India. Historically, madrasas used to impart primary education about the mosque and the
imams in it. Madrasas were non-residential, whilst residential facilities supported by mosques and the Muslim village community were called Palli Dar.[90] During the
British colonisation of India, madrasas were upgraded to centres of primary education. Post-independence, madrasas hold religious education classes before or after regular schools.[90] The All Kerala Islamic Education Board were the first organization to conduct centralized examinations; subsequently, different schools of Islamic beliefs came forward to form their own Islamic education boards to train teachers and conduct centralized examinations: the Samastha Kerala Islam Matha Vidyabhyasa Board (SKIMVB), the Dakshiana Kerala Islam Matha Vidyabhyasa Board (DKIMVB), the Samastha Kerala Sunni Vidyabhyasa Board (SKSVB) and the Samastha Kerala Islamic Education Board (SKIEB). They are all grounded in
Ahl as-Sunnah, whereas the Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen Vidyabhyasa Board (KNM) and The Council for Islamic Education and Research (CIER) are rooted in Ahl-i Hadith. The Majlis al Ta'alim al Islami Kerala (Majlis) represent
Jamaat-e-Islami.[90]
Although the Kerala government does not have its own centralizing Madrasa board, Kerala madrasas affiliate themselves to various madrasa boards backed by various religious institutions, based on different ideologies. Among them, the Samastha Kerala Islam Matha Vidyabhyasa Board (SKIMVB) is the largest, with 80 percent of madrasa stating they are connected to Kerala.[90]
Since the 20th century, Arabic language classes have been implemented in Kerala for advanced religious education.[90]
P. Shabna & K. Kalpana (2022) Re-making the self: Discourses of ideal Islamic womanhood in Kerala, Asian Journal of Women's Studies, 28:1, 24-43,
doi:
10.1080/12259276.2021.2010907
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