A hydrogen infrastructure is the infrastructure of hydrogen pipeline transport, points of
hydrogen production and hydrogen stations (sometimes clustered as a hydrogen highway) for distribution as well as the sale of
hydrogen fuel,[1] and thus a crucial prerequisite before a successful commercialization of automotive
fuel cell technology.[2]
Pipelines are the cheapest way to move hydrogen over long distances compared to other options. Hydrogen gas piping is routine in large oil-refineries, because hydrogen is used to
hydrocrack fuels from crude oil.
Hydrogen embrittlement (a reduction in the
ductility of a metal due to absorbed
hydrogen) is not a problem for hydrogen gas pipelines. Hydrogen embrittlement only happens with 'diffusible' hydrogen, i.e. atoms or ions. Hydrogen gas, however, is molecular (H2), and there is a very significant
energy barrier to splitting it into atoms.[3]
The IEA recommends existing industrial ports be used for production and existing natural gas pipelines for transport: also international co-operation and shipping.[4]
South Korea and
Japan,[5] which as of 2019 lack international
electrical interconnectors, are investing in the hydrogen economy.[6] In March 2020, the
Fukushima Hydrogen Energy Research Field was opened in Japan, claiming to be the world's largest hydrogen production facility.[7] The site occupies 180,000 m2 (1,900,000 sq ft) of land, much of which is occupied by a
solar array; power from the grid is also used for electrolysis of water to produce hydrogen fuel.[8]
Hydrogen stations which are not situated near a hydrogen pipeline get supply via
hydrogen tanks,
compressed hydrogen tube trailers,
liquid hydrogen trailers,
liquid hydrogen tank trucks or dedicated onsite production. Some firms as
ITM Power are also providing solutions to make your own hydrogen (for use in the car) at home.[9] Government supported activities to expand an hydrogen fuel infrastructure are ongoing in the US state of California, in some member states of the European Union (most notably in Germany[2]) and in particular in Japan.
Hydrogen pipeline transport
Hydrogen pipeline transport is a transportation of hydrogen through a
pipe as part of the hydrogen infrastructure. Hydrogen pipeline transport is used to connect the point of
hydrogen production or delivery of hydrogen with the point of demand, pipeline transport costs are similar to
CNG,[10] the technology is proven,[11] however most
hydrogen is produced on the place of demand with every 50 to 100 miles (80 to 161 km) an industrial production facility.[12] As of 2004[update], there are 900 miles (1,448 km) of low pressure hydrogen pipelines in the US and 930 miles (1,497 km) in Europe.
As an energy buffer, hydrogen produced via
water electrolysis and in combination with underground
hydrogen storage or other large-scale storage technologies, could play an important role for the introduction of fluctuating
renewable energy sources like wind or solar power.[2]
Hydrogen pipeline transport is a transportation of hydrogen through a
pipe as part of the hydrogen infrastructure.
History
1938 –
Rhine-Ruhr The first 240 km (150 mi) hydrogen pipes that are constructed of regular pipe steel,
compressed hydrogen pressure 210–20 bars (21,000–2,000 kPa), diameter 250–300 millimetres (9.8–11.8 in). Still in operation.[18][19]
Hydrogen pipeline transport is used to transport hydrogen from the point of production or delivery to the point of demand. Although hydrogen pipeline transport is technologically mature,[22][23] and the transport costs are similar to those of
CNG,[24] most hydrogen is produced in the place of demand, with an industrial production facility every 50 to 100 miles (80 to 161 km)[25]
Piping
For process metal piping at pressures up to 7,000 psi (48 MPa), high-purity
stainless steel piping with a maximum hardness of 80
HRB is preferred.[26] This is because higher hardnesses are associated with lower
fracture toughness so stronger, higher hardness steel is less safe.
Carrying hydrogen in steel pipelines (grades: API5L-X42 and X52; up to 1,000psi/7,000kPa, constant pressure/low pressure cycling) does not lead to
hydrogen embrittlement.[31] Hydrogen is typically stored in steel cylinders without problems.
Coal gas (also known as town gas) is 50% hydrogen and was carried in cast-iron pipes for half a century without any embrittlement issues.
Infrastructure
2004 - USA - 900 mi (1,400 km) of low pressure hydrogen pipelines[32][33]
2004 - Europe - 1,500 km (930 mi) of low pressure hydrogen pipelines.[34]
Hydrogen highway
A hydrogen highway is a chain of
hydrogen-equipped public
filling stations, along a road or highway, that allows
hydrogen powered cars to travel.[35]William Clay Ford Jr. has stated that infrastructure is one of three factors (also including costs and manufacturability in high volumes) that hold back the marketability of
fuel cell cars.[3]
Supply issues, cost and pollution
Hydrogen fueling stations generally receive deliveries of hydrogen by tanker truck from hydrogen suppliers.[36] An interruption at a hydrogen supply facility can shut down multiple hydrogen fueling stations.[37] A hydrogen fueling station costs between $1 million and $4 million to build.[38]
As of 2019, 98% of hydrogen is produced by
steam methane reforming, which emits carbon dioxide.[14] The bulk of hydrogen is also transported in trucks, so pollution is emitted in its transportation.[36]
Hydrogen station
A hydrogen station is a storage or
filling station for
hydrogen fuel.[39] The hydrogen is dispensed by weight.[40][41] There are two filling pressures in common use: H70 or 700
bar, and the older standard H35 or 350 bar.[42] As of 2021[update], around 550 filling stations were available worldwide.[42]
Delivery methods
Hydrogen fueling stations can be divided into off-site stations, where hydrogen is delivered by truck or pipeline, and on-site stations that produce and compress hydrogen for the vehicles.[43][44]
Types of recharging stations
Home hydrogen fueling station
Home hydrogen fueling stations are available to consumers.[45] A model that can produce 12 kilograms of hydrogen per day sells for $325,000.[46]
Hydrogen fuel is hazardous because of its low ignition energy, high combustion energy, and because it easily leaks from tanks.[51] Explosions at hydrogen filling stations have been reported.[52]
Supply
Hydrogen fuelling stations generally receive deliveries by truck from hydrogen suppliers. An interruption at a hydrogen supply facility can shut down multiple hydrogen fuelling stations due to an interruption of the supply of hydrogen.[53]
There are far fewer Hydrogen filling stations than gasoline fuel stations, which in the US alone numbered 168,000 in 2004.[54] Replacing the US gasoline infrastructure with hydrogen fuel infrastructure is estimated to cost a half
trillion U.S. dollars.[55] A hydrogen fueling station costs between $1 million and $4 million to build.[56] In comparison, battery electric vehicles can charge at home or at public chargers. As of 2023, there are more than 60,000 public charging stations in the United States, with more than 160,000 outlets.[57] A public Level 2 charger, which comprise the majority of public chargers in the US, costs about $2,000, and DC fast chargers, of which there are more than 30,000 in the U.S.,[57] generally cost between $100,000 and $250,000,[58] although Tesla superchargers are estimated to cost approximately $43,000.[59]
Freezing of the nozzle
During refueling, the flow of cold hydrogen can cause frost to form on the dispenser nozzle, sometimes leading to the nozzle becoming frozen to the vehicle being refueled.[60]
Locations
Consulting firm Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik tracks global hydrogen filling stations and publishes a map.[61]
Asia
In 2019, there were 178 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in operation.[62]
As of May 2023[update], there are 167 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in operation in Japan.[63][64] In 2012 there were 17 hydrogen stations,[65] and in 2021, there were 137 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Japan.[42]
By the end of 2020, China had built 118 hydrogen refueling stations.[66]
In 2019, there were 33 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in operation in South Korea.[62][67] In November 2023, however, due to hydrogen supply problems and broken stations, most fueling stations in South Korea offered no hydrogen.[68] 41 out of the 159 hydrogen stations in the country were listed as open, and some of these were rationing supplies of hydrogen.[69]
Europe
In 2019, there were 177 stations in Europe.[62][70][71] By early 2024 that number had grown to 178, half of which were in Germany.[72]
As of June 2020,[update] there were 84 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Germany,[70] 5 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in France,[70] 3 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Iceland,[70] one publicly available hydrogen fuel station in Italy,[70] 4 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in The Netherlands,[70] 2 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Belgium,[70] 4 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Sweden,[70] 3 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Switzerland[70] and 6 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Denmark.[70] Everfuel, the only operator of hydrogen stations in Denmark, announced in 2023 the closure of all of its public hydrogen stations in the country.[73][74]
As of June 2021,[update] there were 2 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in Norway, both in the Oslo area.[75] Since the explosion at the hydrogen filling station in
Sandvika in June 2019, the sale of hydrogen cars in Norway has halted.[76] In 2023, Everfuel announced the closure of its two public hydrogen stations in Norway and cancelled the opening of a third.[73]
As of June 2020,[update] there were 11 publicly available hydrogen fuel stations in the United Kingdom,[70] but as of 2023, the number decreased to 5.[77] In 2022, Shell closed its three hydrogen stations in the UK.[78]
North America
Canada
As of July 2023, there were 10 fueling stations in Canada, 9 of which were open to the public:
British Columbia: Five stations are in the Greater Vancouver Area and Vancouver Island, with one station in Kelowna. All six stations are operated by HTEC (co-branded with
Shell and
Esso).[79]
Ontario: One station in Mississauga is operated by
Hydrogenics Corporation. The station is only available to certain commercial customers.[80]
Quebec: Three stations in the Greater Montreal area are operated by Shell, and one station in Quebec City is operated by Harnois Énergies (co-branded with Esso).[80]
United States
As of March 2024[update], there were 52 publicly accessible hydrogen refueling stations in the US, 51 of which were located in California, with one in Hawaii.[57]
California: As of March 2024,[update] there were 51 retail stations.[57] Continued state funding for hydrogen refueling stations is uncertain.[81] In September 2023, Shell announced that it had closed its hydrogen stations in the state and discontinued plans to build further stations.[82] In 2024 it was reported that "a majority of the hydrogen stations in Southern California are offline or operating with reduced hours" due to hydrogen shortages and unreliable station performance.[83]
Hawaii opened its first hydrogen station at Hickam in 2009.[84][85] In 2012, the Aloha Motor Company opened a hydrogen station in
Honolulu.[86] As of April 2023,[update] however, only one publicly accessible station was in operation in Hawaii.[57]
Various applications have allowed the development of different H2 storage scenarios.
Recently, the Hy-Can[92] consortium has introduced a small one liter, 10 bars (1.0 MPa; 150 psi) format. Horizon Fuel Cells is now selling a refillable 3 megapascals (30 bar; 440 psi) metal hydride form factor for consumer use called HydroStik.[93]
Approximate maximum pressure: 700 bars (70 MPa; 10,000 psi).[95]
Type V
All-composite, linerless tank. Composites Technology Development (Colorado, USA) built a prototype tank for a satellite application in 2010 although it had an operating pressure of only 200 psi and was used to store argon.[96]
Approximate maximum pressure: 1,000 bars (100 MPa; 15,000 psi).
Burst test: the pressure at which the tank bursts, typically more than 2× the working pressure.
Proof pressure: the pressure at which the test will be executed, typically above the working pressure.
Leak test or permeation test,[97] in NmL/hr/L (Normal liter of H2/time in hr/volume of the tank.)
Fatigue test, typically several thousand cycles of charging/emptying.
Bonfire test where the tank is exposed to an open fire.
Bullet test where live ammunition is fired at the tank.
This specification was replaced by ISO 13985:2006 and only applies to liquid hydrogen tanks.
Actual Standard EC 79/2009
U.S. Department of Energy maintains a hydrogen safety best practices site with a lot of information about tanks and piping.[98] They dryly observe "Hydrogen is a very small molecule with low viscosity, and therefore prone to leakage.".[99]
Metal hydride storage tank
Magnesium hydride
Using magnesium[100] for
hydrogen storage, a safe but weighty reversible storage technology. Typically the pressure requirement are limited to 10 bars (1.0 MPa; 150 psi).
The charging process generates heat whereas the discharge process will require some heat to release the H2 contained in the storage material. To activate these types of hydrides, at the current state of development you need to reach approximately 300 °C (572 °F).
[101][102][103]
^Bhadhesia, Harry.
"Prevention of Hydrogen Embrittlement in Steels"(PDF). Phase Transformations & Complex Properties Research Group, Cambridge University.
Archived(PDF) from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 17 December 2020.