In the standard
lambda-CDM model of cosmology, the
mass–energy content of the universe is 5% ordinary matter, 26.8% dark matter, and 68.2% a form of energy known as
dark energy.[4][5][6][7] Thus, dark matter constitutes 85%[a] of the total mass, while dark energy and dark matter constitute 95% of the total mass–energy content.[8][9][10][11]
Dark matter is classified as "cold", "warm", or "hot" according to its
velocity (more precisely, its
free streaming length). Recent models have favored a
cold dark matter scenario, in which
structures emerge by the gradual accumulation of particles.
Although the astrophysics community generally accepts dark matter's existence,[16] a minority of astrophysicists, intrigued by specific observations that are not well-explained by ordinary dark matter, argue for various modifications of the standard laws of general relativity. These include
modified Newtonian dynamics,
tensor–vector–scalar gravity, or
entropic gravity. So far none of the proposed modified gravity theories can successfully describe
every piece of observational evidence at the same time, suggesting that even if gravity has to be modified, some form of dark matter will still be required.[17]
History
Early history
The hypothesis of dark matter has an elaborate history.[18] In the appendices of the book Baltimore lectures on molecular dynamics and the wave theory of light where the main text was based on a series of lectures given in 1884,[19]Lord Kelvin discussed the potential number of stars around the Sun from the observed velocity dispersion of the stars near the Sun, assuming that the Sun was 20 to 100 million years old. He posed what would happen if there were a thousand million stars within 1
kilo-parsec of the Sun (at which distance their parallax would be 1
milli-arcsec). Lord Kelvin concluded:
Many of our supposed thousand million stars, perhaps a great majority of them, may be dark bodies.[20][21]
In 1906,
Henri Poincaré in The Milky Way and Theory of Gases used the French term matière obscure ("dark matter") in discussing Kelvin's work.[22][21] He found that the amount of dark matter would need to be less than that of visible matter.[23]
The second to suggest the existence of dark matter using stellar velocities was Dutch astronomer
Jacobus Kapteyn in 1922.[24][25] A publication from 1930 points to Swedish
Knut Lundmark being the first to realise that the universe must contain much more mass than can be observed.[26] Dutchman and radio astronomy pioneer
Jan Oort also hypothesized the existence of dark matter in 1932.[25][27][28] Oort was studying stellar motions in the
local galactic neighborhood and found the mass in the galactic plane must be greater than what was observed, but this measurement was later determined to be erroneous.[29]
In 1933, Swiss astrophysicist
Fritz Zwicky, who studied
galaxy clusters while working at the
California Institute of Technology, made a similar inference.[30][31] Zwicky applied the
virial theorem to the
Coma Cluster and obtained evidence of unseen mass he called dunkle Materie ('dark matter'). Zwicky estimated its mass based on the motions of galaxies near its edge and compared that to an estimate based on its brightness and number of galaxies. He estimated the cluster had about 400 times more mass than was visually observable. The gravity effect of the visible galaxies was far too small for such fast orbits, thus mass must be hidden from view. Based on these conclusions, Zwicky inferred some unseen matter provided the mass and associated gravitation attraction to hold the cluster together.[32] Zwicky's estimates were off by more than an order of magnitude, mainly due to an obsolete value of the
Hubble constant;[33] the same calculation today shows a smaller fraction, using greater values for luminous mass. Nonetheless, Zwicky did correctly conclude from his calculation that the bulk of the matter was dark.[21]
Further indications of
mass-to-light ratio anomalies came from measurements of
galaxy rotation curves. In 1939,
Horace W. Babcock reported the rotation curve for the
Andromeda nebula (known now as the Andromeda Galaxy), which suggested the mass-to-luminosity ratio increases radially.[34] He attributed it to either light absorption within the galaxy or modified dynamics in the outer portions of the spiral and not to the missing matter he had uncovered. Following
Babcock's 1939 report of unexpectedly rapid rotation in the outskirts of the Andromeda galaxy and a mass-to-light ratio of 50; in 1940 Jan Oort discovered and wrote about the large non-visible halo of
NGC 3115.[35]
1960s
Early radio astronomy observations, performed by
Seth Shostak, later
SETI Institute Senior Astronomer, showed a half-dozen galaxies spun too fast in their outer regions, pointing to the existence of dark matter as a means of creating the gravitational pull needed to keep the stars in their orbits.[36]
1970s
Vera Rubin,
Kent Ford, and
Ken Freeman's work in the 1960s and 1970s[37] provided further strong evidence, also using galaxy rotation curves.[38][39][40] Rubin and Ford worked with a new
spectrograph to measure the
velocity curve of edge-on
spiral galaxies with greater accuracy.[40] This result was confirmed in 1978.[41] An influential paper presented Rubin and Ford's results in 1980.[42] They showed most galaxies must contain about six times as much dark as visible mass;[43]: 13–14 thus, by around 1980 the apparent need for dark matter was widely recognized as a major unsolved problem in astronomy.[38]
At the same time, Rubin and Ford were exploring optical rotation curves, radio astronomers were making use of new radio telescopes to map the 21 cm line of atomic hydrogen in nearby galaxies. The radial distribution of interstellar atomic hydrogen (
HI) often extends to much greater galactic distances than can be observed as collective starlight, expanding the sampled distances for rotation curves – and thus of the total mass distribution – to a new dynamical regime. Early mapping of
Andromeda with the 300 foot telescope at
Green Bank[44] and the 250 foot dish at
Jodrell Bank[45] already showed the HI rotation curve did not trace the expected Keplerian decline. As more sensitive receivers became available, Roberts & Whitehurst (1975)[46] were able to trace the rotational velocity of Andromeda to 30 kpc, much beyond the optical measurements. Illustrating the advantage of tracing the gas disk at large radii; that paper's Figure 16[46] combines the optical data[40] (the cluster of points at radii of less than 15 kpc with a single point further out) with the HI data between 20 and 30 kpc, exhibiting the flatness of the outer galaxy rotation curve; the solid curve peaking at the center is the optical surface density, while the other curve shows the cumulative mass, still rising linearly at the outermost measurement. In parallel, the use of interferometric arrays for extragalactic HI spectroscopy was being developed. Rogstad &
Shostak (1972)[47] published HI rotation curves of five spirals mapped with the Owens Valley interferometer; the rotation curves of all five were very flat, suggesting very large values of mass-to-light ratio in the outer parts of their extended HI disks.[47]
1980s
A stream of observations in the 1980s supported the presence of dark matter, including
gravitational lensing of background objects by
galaxy clusters,[43]: 14–16 the temperature distribution of hot gas in galaxies and clusters, and the pattern of
anisotropies in the
cosmic microwave background. According to consensus among cosmologists, dark matter is composed primarily of a not-yet-characterized type of
subatomic particle.[48][49] The search for this particle, by a variety of means, is one of the major efforts in
particle physics.[50]
In standard cosmological calculations, "matter" means any constituent of the universe whose energy density scales with the inverse cube of the
scale factor, i.e., ρ ∝ a−3. This is in contrast to "radiation", which scales as the inverse fourth power of the scale factor ρ ∝ a−4, and a
cosmological constant, which does not change with respect to a (ρ ∝ a0). The different scaling factors for matter and radiation are a consequence of radiation
redshift: For example, after gradually doubling the diameter of the observable Universe via
cosmic expansion of General Relativity, the scale, a, has doubled. The energy of the
cosmic microwave background radiation has been halved (because the wavelength of each photon has doubled);[51] the energy of ultra-relativistic particles, such as early-era standard-model neutrinos, is similarly halved.[d]
The cosmological constant, as an intrinsic property of space, has a constant energy density regardless of the volume under consideration.[52][e]
In principle, "dark matter" means all components of the universe which are not visible but still obey ρ ∝ a−3. In practice, the term "dark matter" is often used to mean only the non-baryonic component of dark matter, i.e., excluding "
missing baryons". Context will usually indicate which meaning is intended.
The arms of
spiral galaxies rotate around the galactic center. The luminous mass density of a spiral galaxy decreases as one goes from the center to the outskirts. If luminous mass were all the matter, then we can model the galaxy as a point mass in the centre and test masses orbiting around it, similar to the
Solar System.[f] From
Kepler's Third Law, it is expected that the rotation velocities will decrease with distance from the center, similar to the Solar System. This is not observed.[53] Instead, the galaxy rotation curve remains flat as distance from the center increases.
If Kepler's laws are correct, then the obvious way to resolve this discrepancy is to conclude the mass distribution in spiral galaxies is not similar to that of the Solar System. In particular, there is a lot of non-luminous matter (dark matter) in the outskirts of the galaxy.
Stars in bound systems must obey the
virial theorem. The theorem, together with the measured velocity distribution, can be used to measure the mass distribution in a bound system, such as elliptical galaxies or globular clusters. With some exceptions, velocity dispersion estimates of elliptical galaxies[54] do not match the predicted velocity dispersion from the observed mass distribution, even assuming complicated distributions of stellar orbits.[55]
As with galaxy rotation curves, the obvious way to resolve the discrepancy is to postulate the existence of non-luminous matter.
Galaxy clusters
Galaxy clusters are particularly important for dark matter studies since their masses can be estimated in three independent ways:
From the scatter in radial velocities of the galaxies within clusters
From
X-rays emitted by hot gas in the clusters. From the X-ray energy spectrum and flux, the gas temperature and density can be estimated, hence giving the pressure; assuming pressure and gravity balance determines the cluster's mass profile.
Gravitational lensing (usually of more distant galaxies) can measure cluster masses without relying on observations of dynamics (e.g., velocity).
Generally, these three methods are in reasonable agreement that dark matter outweighs visible matter by approximately 5 to 1.[56]
Gravitational lensing
One of the consequences of
general relativity is the
gravitational lens. Gravitational lensing occurs when massive objects between a source of light and the observer act as a lens to bend light from this source. One example is a
cluster of galaxies lying between a more distant source such as a
quasar and an observer. The more massive an object, the more lensing is observed.
Strong lensing is the observed distortion of background galaxies into arcs when their light passes through such a gravitational lens. It has been observed around many distant clusters including
Abell 1689.[57] By measuring the distortion geometry, the mass of the intervening cluster can be obtained. In the dozens of cases where this has been done, the mass-to-light ratios obtained correspond to the dynamical dark matter measurements of clusters.[58] Lensing can lead to multiple copies of an image. By analyzing the distribution of multiple image copies, scientists have been able to deduce and map the distribution of dark matter around the
MACS J0416.1-2403 galaxy cluster.[59][60]
Weak gravitational lensing investigates minute distortions of galaxies, using statistical analyses from vast
galaxy surveys. By examining the apparent shear deformation of the adjacent background galaxies, the mean distribution of dark matter can be characterized. The mass-to-light ratios correspond to dark matter densities predicted by other large-scale structure measurements.[61] Dark matter does not bend light itself; mass (in this case the mass of the dark matter) bends
spacetime. Light follows the curvature of spacetime, resulting in the lensing effect.[62][63]
In May 2021, a new detailed dark matter map was revealed by the
Dark Energy Survey Collaboration.[64] In addition, the map revealed previously undiscovered
filamentary structures connecting galaxies, by using a
machine learning method.[65]
An April 2023 study in Nature Astronomy examined the inferred distribution of the dark matter responsible for the lensing of the
elliptical galaxy HS 0810+2554, and found tentative evidence of
interference patterns within the dark matter. The observation of interference patterns is incompatible with WIMPs, but would be compatible with simulations involving 10−22eV axions. While acknowledging the need to corroborate the findings by examining other astrophysical lenses, the authors argued that "The ability of (axion-based dark matter) to resolve lensing anomalies even in demanding cases such as HS 0810+2554, together with its success in reproducing other astrophysical observations, tilt the balance toward new physics invoking axions."[12][66]
Although both dark matter and ordinary matter are matter, they do not behave in the same way. In particular, in the early universe, ordinary matter was ionized and interacted strongly with radiation via
Thomson scattering. Dark matter does not interact directly with radiation, but it does affect the cosmic microwave background (CMB) by its gravitational potential (mainly on large scales) and by its effects on the density and velocity of ordinary matter. Ordinary and dark matter perturbations, therefore, evolve differently with time and leave different imprints on the CMB.
The cosmic microwave background is very close to a perfect blackbody but contains very small temperature anisotropies of a few parts in 100,000. A sky map of anisotropies can be decomposed into an angular power spectrum, which is observed to contain a series of acoustic peaks at near-equal spacing but different heights.
The series of peaks can be predicted for any assumed set of cosmological parameters by modern computer codes such as
CMBFAST and
CAMB, and matching theory to data, therefore, constrains cosmological parameters.[67] The first peak mostly shows the density of baryonic matter, while the third peak relates mostly to the density of dark matter, measuring the density of matter and the density of atoms.[67]
The CMB anisotropy was first discovered by
COBE in 1992, though this had too coarse resolution to detect the acoustic peaks.
After the discovery of the first acoustic peak by the balloon-borne
BOOMERanG experiment in 2000, the power spectrum was precisely observed by
WMAP in 2003–2012, and even more precisely by the
Planck spacecraft in 2013–2015. The results support the Lambda-CDM model.[68][69]
The observed CMB angular power spectrum provides powerful evidence in support of dark matter, as its precise structure is well fitted by the
lambda-CDM model,[69] but difficult to reproduce with any competing model such as
modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND).[69][70]
Structure formation refers to the period after the Big Bang when density perturbations collapsed to form stars, galaxies, and clusters. Prior to structure formation, the
Friedmann solutions to general relativity describe a homogeneous universe. Later, small anisotropies gradually grew and condensed the homogeneous universe into stars, galaxies and larger structures. Ordinary matter is affected by radiation, which is the dominant element of the universe at very early times. As a result, its density perturbations are washed out and unable to condense into structure.[72] If there were only ordinary matter in the universe, there would not have been enough time for density perturbations to grow into the galaxies and clusters currently seen.
Dark matter provides a solution to this problem because it is unaffected by radiation. Therefore, its density perturbations can grow first. The resulting gravitational potential acts as an attractive
potential well for ordinary matter collapsing later, speeding up the structure formation process.[72][73]
The Bullet Cluster, the result of a recent collision of two galaxy clusters, provides model-independent observational evidence for Dark matter.[74]
Alternatives like modified gravity theories have a difficult time explaining this system because its apparent center of mass is far displaced from the baryonic center of mass.[75][76][77]
Type Ia
supernovae can be used as
standard candles to measure extragalactic distances, which can in turn be used to measure how fast the universe has expanded in the past.[78] Data indicates the universe is expanding at an accelerating rate, the cause of which is usually ascribed to
dark energy.[79] Since observations indicate the universe is almost flat,[80][81][82] it is expected the total energy density of everything in the universe should sum to 1 (Ωtot ≈ 1). The measured dark energy density is ΩΛ ≈ 0.690; the observed ordinary (baryonic) matter energy density is Ωb ≈ 0.0482 and the energy density of radiation is negligible. This leaves a missing Ωdm ≈ 0.258 which nonetheless behaves like matter (see technical definition section above) – dark matter.[83]
Baryon acoustic oscillations (BAO) are fluctuations in the density of the visible baryonic matter (normal matter) of the universe on large scales. These are predicted to arise in the Lambda-CDM model due to acoustic oscillations in the photon–baryon fluid of the early universe, and can be observed in the cosmic microwave background angular power spectrum. BAOs set up a preferred length scale for baryons. As the dark matter and baryons clumped together after recombination, the effect is much weaker in the galaxy distribution in the nearby universe, but is detectable as a subtle (≈1 percent) preference for pairs of galaxies to be separated by 147 Mpc, compared to those separated by 130–160 Mpc. This feature was predicted theoretically in the 1990s and then discovered in 2005, in two large galaxy redshift surveys, the
Sloan Digital Sky Survey and the
2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey.[84] Combining the CMB observations with BAO measurements from galaxy
redshift surveys provides a precise estimate of the
Hubble constant and the average matter density in the Universe.[85] The results support the Lambda-CDM model.
Redshift-space distortions
Large galaxy
redshift surveys may be used to make a three-dimensional map of the galaxy distribution. These maps are slightly distorted because distances are estimated from observed
redshifts; the redshift contains a contribution from the galaxy's so-called peculiar velocity in addition to the dominant Hubble expansion term. On average, superclusters are expanding more slowly than the cosmic mean due to their gravity, while voids are expanding faster than average. In a redshift map, galaxies in front of a supercluster have excess radial velocities towards it and have redshifts slightly higher than their distance would imply, while galaxies behind the supercluster have redshifts slightly low for their distance. This effect causes superclusters to appear squashed in the radial direction, and likewise voids are stretched. Their angular positions are unaffected. This effect is not detectable for any one structure since the true shape is not known, but can be measured by averaging over many structures. It was predicted quantitatively by Nick Kaiser in 1987, and first decisively measured in 2001 by the
2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey.[86] Results are in agreement with the
lambda-CDM model.
Dark matter can refer to any substance which interacts predominantly via gravity with visible matter (e.g., stars and planets). Hence in principle it need not be composed of a new type of fundamental particle but could, at least in part, be made up of standard
baryonic matter, such as protons or neutrons. Most of the ordinary matter familiar to astronomers, including planets, brown dwarfs, red dwarfs, visible stars, white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes, fall into this category.[101][102] Solitary
black holes,
neutron stars, burnt-out dwarfs, and other massive objects that are hard to detect are collectively known as
MACHOs; some scientists initially hoped that baryonic MACHOs could account for and explain all the dark matter.[43]: 286 [103]
However, multiple lines of evidence suggest the majority of dark matter is not baryonic:
Sufficient diffuse, baryonic gas or dust would be visible when backlit by stars.
The theory of
Big Bang nucleosynthesis predicts the observed
abundance of the chemical elements. If there are more baryons, then there should also be more helium, lithium and heavier elements synthesized during the Big Bang.[104][105] Agreement with observed abundances requires that baryonic matter makes up between 4–5% of the universe's
critical density. In contrast,
large-scale structure and other observations indicate that the total matter density is about 30% of the critical density.[83]
Astronomical searches for
gravitational microlensing in the
Milky Way found at most only a small fraction of the dark matter may be in dark, compact, conventional objects (MACHOs, etc.); the excluded range of object masses is from half the Earth's mass up to 30 solar masses, which covers nearly all the plausible candidates.[106][107][108][109][110][111]
Detailed analysis of the small irregularities (anisotropies) in the
cosmic microwave background.[112] Observations by
WMAP and
Planck indicate that around five-sixths of the total matter is in a form that interacts significantly with ordinary matter or
photons only through gravitational effects.
Unlike baryonic matter, nonbaryonic particles do not contribute to the formation of the
elements in the early universe (
Big Bang nucleosynthesis)[48] and so its presence is revealed only via its gravitational effects, or
weak lensing. In addition, if the particles of which it is composed are supersymmetric, they can undergo
annihilation interactions with themselves, possibly resulting in observable by-products such as
gamma rays and neutrinos (indirect detection).[113]
In 2015, the idea that dense dark matter was composed of
primordial black holes made a comeback[117]
following results of
gravitational wave measurements which detected the merger of intermediate-mass black holes. Black holes with about 30 solar masses are not predicted to form by either stellar collapse (typically less than 15 solar masses) or by the merger of black holes in galactic centers (millions or billions of solar masses). It was proposed that the intermediate-mass black holes causing the detected merger formed in the hot dense early phase of the universe due to denser regions collapsing. A later survey of about a thousand supernovae detected no gravitational lensing events, when about eight would be expected if intermediate-mass primordial black holes above a certain mass range accounted for over 60% of dark matter.[118]
However, that study assumed a monochromatic distribution to represent the LIGO/Virgo mass range, which is inapplicable to the broadly
platykurtic mass distribution suggested by subsequent
James Webb Space Telescope observations.[119][94]
The possibility that atom-sized primordial black holes account for a significant fraction of dark matter was ruled out by measurements of positron and electron fluxes outside the Sun's heliosphere by the
Voyager 1 spacecraft. Tiny black holes are theorized to emit
Hawking radiation. However the detected fluxes were too low and did not have the expected energy spectrum, suggesting that tiny primordial black holes are not widespread enough to account for dark matter.[120] Nonetheless, research and theories proposing dense dark matter accounts for dark matter continue as of 2018, including approaches to dark matter cooling,[121][122]
and the question remains unsettled. In 2019, the lack of microlensing effects in the observation of Andromeda suggests that tiny black holes do not exist.[123]
However, there still exists a largely unconstrained mass range smaller than that which can be limited by optical microlensing observations, where primordial black holes may account for all dark matter.[124][125]
Free streaming length
Dark matter can be divided into cold, warm, and hot categories.[126] These categories refer to velocity rather than an actual temperature, indicating how far corresponding objects moved due to random motions in the early universe, before they slowed due to cosmic expansion – this is an important distance called the free streaming length (FSL). Primordial density fluctuations smaller than this length get washed out as particles spread from overdense to underdense regions, while larger fluctuations are unaffected; therefore this length sets a minimum scale for later structure formation.
The categories are set with respect to the size of a
protogalaxy (an object that later evolves into a
dwarf galaxy): Dark matter particles are classified as cold, warm, or hot according to their FSL; much smaller (cold), similar to (warm), or much larger (hot) than a protogalaxy.[127][128][129] Mixtures of the above are also possible: a theory of
mixed dark matter was popular in the mid-1990s, but was rejected following the discovery of
dark energy.[citation needed]
Cold dark matter leads to a bottom-up formation of structure with galaxies forming first and galaxy clusters at a latter stage, while hot dark matter would result in a top-down formation scenario with large matter aggregations forming early, later fragmenting into separate galaxies;[clarification needed] the latter is excluded by high-redshift galaxy observations.[50]
Fluctuation spectrum effects
These categories also correspond to
fluctuation spectrum effects [further explanation needed] and the interval following the Big Bang at which each type became non-relativistic. Davis et al. wrote in 1985:[130]
Candidate particles can be grouped into three categories on the basis of their effect on the
fluctuation spectrum (Bond et al. 1983). If the dark matter is composed of abundant light particles which remain relativistic until shortly before recombination, then it may be termed "hot". The best candidate for hot dark matter is a neutrino ... A second possibility is for the dark matter particles to interact more weakly than neutrinos, to be less abundant, and to have a mass of order 1 keV. Such particles are termed "warm dark matter", because they have lower thermal velocities than massive neutrinos ... there are at present few candidate particles which fit this description.
Gravitinos and
photinos have been suggested (Pagels and Primack 1982; Bond, Szalay and Turner 1982) ... Any particles which became nonrelativistic very early, and so were able to diffuse a negligible distance, are termed "cold" dark matter (CDM). There are many candidates for CDM including supersymmetric particles.
Another approximate dividing line is warm dark matter became non-relativistic when the universe was approximately 1 year old and 1 millionth of its present size and in the
radiation-dominated era (photons and neutrinos), with a photon temperature 2.7 million Kelvins. Standard physical cosmology gives the
particle horizon size as (speed of light multiplied by time) in the radiation-dominated era, thus 2 light-years. A region of this size would expand to 2 million light-years today (absent structure formation). The actual FSL is approximately 5 times the above length, since it continues to grow slowly as particle velocities decrease inversely with the scale factor after they become non-relativistic. In this example the FSL would correspond to 10 million light-years (or 3 mega
parsecs) today, around the size containing an average large galaxy.
The 2.7 million
Kelvin photon temperature gives a typical photon energy of 250
electronvolt, thereby setting a typical mass scale for warm dark matter: particles much more massive than this, such as GeV–TeV mass WIMPs, would become non-relativistic much earlier than one year after the Big Bang and thus have FSLs much smaller than a protogalaxy, making them cold. Conversely, much lighter particles, such as neutrinos with masses of only a few electronvolt, have FSLs much larger than a protogalaxy, thus qualifying them as hot.
Cold dark matter offers the simplest explanation for most cosmological observations. It is dark matter composed of constituents with an FSL much smaller than a protogalaxy. This is the focus for dark matter research, as hot dark matter does not seem capable of supporting galaxy or galaxy cluster formation, and most particle candidates slowed early.
The constituents of cold dark matter are unknown. Possibilities range from large objects like MACHOs (such as black holes[131] and
Preon stars[132]) or
RAMBOs (such as clusters of brown dwarfs), to new particles such as WIMPs and
axions.
The 1997
DAMA/NaI experiment and its successor
DAMA/LIBRA in 2013, claimed to directly detect dark matter particles passing through the Earth, but many researchers remain skeptical, as negative results from similar experiments seem incompatible with the DAMA results.
Warm dark matter comprises particles with an FSL comparable to the size of a protogalaxy. Predictions based on warm dark matter are similar to those for cold dark matter on large scales, but with less small-scale density perturbations. This reduces the predicted abundance of dwarf galaxies and may lead to lower density of dark matter in the central parts of large galaxies. Some researchers consider this a better fit to observations. A challenge for this model is the lack of particle candidates with the required mass ≈ 300 eV to 3000 eV.[citation needed]
No known particles can be categorized as warm dark matter. A postulated candidate is the
sterile neutrino: a heavier, slower form of neutrino that does not interact through the
weak force, unlike other neutrinos. Some modified gravity theories, such as
scalar–tensor–vector gravity, require "warm" dark matter to make their equations work.
Hot dark matter consists of particles whose FSL is much larger than the size of a protogalaxy. The
neutrino qualifies as such a particle. They were discovered independently, long before the hunt for dark matter: they were postulated in 1930, and
detected in 1956. Neutrinos'
mass is less than 10−6 that of an
electron. Neutrinos interact with normal matter only via gravity and the
weak force, making them difficult to detect (the weak force only works over a small distance, thus a neutrino triggers a weak force event only if it hits a nucleus head-on). This makes them "
weakly interacting slender particles" (
WISPs), as opposed to WIMPs.
The three known
flavours of neutrinos are the electron, muon, and tau. Neutrinos oscillate among the flavours as they move. It is hard to determine an exact
upper bound on the collective average mass of the three neutrinos. For example, if the average neutrino mass were over 50
eV/c2 (less than 10−5 of the mass of an electron), the universe would collapse.[134] CMB data and other methods indicate that their average mass probably does not exceed 0.3 eV/c2. Thus, observed neutrinos cannot explain dark matter.[135]
Because galaxy-size density fluctuations get washed out by free-streaming, hot dark matter implies the first objects that can form are huge
supercluster-size pancakes, which then fragment into galaxies.
Deep-field observations show instead that galaxies formed first, followed by clusters and superclusters as galaxies clump together.
Dark matter aggregation and dense dark matter objects
If dark matter is composed of weakly interacting particles, then an obvious question is whether it can form objects equivalent to
planets,
stars, or
black holes. Historically, the answer has been it cannot,[h][136][137][138]
because of two factors:
Ordinary matter forms dense objects because it has numerous ways to lose energy. Losing energy would be essential for object formation, because a particle that gains energy during compaction or falling "inward" under gravity, and cannot lose it any other way, will heat up and increase
velocity and
momentum. Dark matter appears to lack a means to lose energy, simply because it is not capable of interacting strongly in other ways except through gravity. The
virial theorem suggests that such a particle would not stay bound to the gradually forming object – as the object began to form and compact, the dark matter particles within it would speed up and tend to escape.
It lacks a diversity of interactions needed to form structures[138]
Ordinary matter interacts in many different ways, which allows the matter to form more complex structures. For example, stars form through gravity, but the particles within them interact and can emit energy in the form of
neutrinos and
electromagnetic radiation through
fusion when they become energetic enough.
Protons and
neutrons can bind via the
strong interaction and then form
atoms with
electrons largely through
electromagnetic interaction. There is no evidence that dark matter is capable of such a wide variety of interactions, since it seems to only interact through gravity (and possibly through some means no stronger than the
weak interaction, although until dark matter is better understood, this is only speculation).
However, there are theories of
atomic dark matter similar to normal matter that overcome these problems.[92]
Detection of dark matter particles
If dark matter is made up of subatomic particles, then millions, possibly billions, of such particles must pass through every square centimeter of the Earth each second.[139][140] Many experiments aim to test this hypothesis. Although WIMPs have been the main search candidates,[50]axions have drawn renewed attention, with the
Axion Dark Matter Experiment (ADMX) searches for axions and many more planned in the future.[141] Another candidate is heavy
hidden sector particles which only interact with ordinary matter via gravity.
These experiments can be divided into two classes: direct detection experiments, which search for the scattering of dark matter particles off atomic nuclei within a detector; and indirect detection, which look for the products of dark matter particle annihilations or decays.[113]
These experiments mostly use either cryogenic or noble liquid detector technologies. Cryogenic detectors operating at temperatures below 100 mK, detect the heat produced when a particle hits an atom in a crystal absorber such as
germanium.
Noble liquid detectors detect
scintillation produced by a particle collision in liquid
xenon or
argon. Cryogenic detector experiments include such projects as
CDMS,
CRESST,
EDELWEISS, and
EURECA, while noble liquid experiments include
LZ,
XENON,
DEAP,
ArDM,
WARP,
DarkSide,
PandaX, and LUX, the
Large Underground Xenon experiment. Both of these techniques focus strongly on their ability to distinguish background particles (which predominantly scatter off electrons) from dark matter particles (that scatter off nuclei). Other experiments include
SIMPLE and
PICASSO, which use alternative methods in their attempts to detect dark matter.
Currently there has been no well-established claim of dark matter detection from a direct detection experiment, leading instead to strong upper limits on the mass and interaction cross section with nucleons of such dark matter particles.[142] The
DAMA/NaI and more recent
DAMA/LIBRA experimental collaborations have detected an annual modulation in the rate of events in their detectors,[143][144] which they claim is due to dark matter. This results from the expectation that as the Earth orbits the Sun, the velocity of the detector relative to the
dark matter halo will vary by a small amount. This claim is so far unconfirmed and in contradiction with negative results from other experiments such as LUX, SuperCDMS[145] and XENON100.[146]
A special case of direct detection experiments covers those with directional sensitivity. This is a search strategy based on the motion of the Solar System around the
Galactic Center.[147][148][149][150] A low-pressure
time projection chamber makes it possible to access information on recoiling tracks and constrain WIMP-nucleus kinematics. WIMPs coming from the direction in which the Sun travels (approximately towards
Cygnus) may then be separated from background, which should be isotropic. Directional dark matter experiments include
DMTPC,
DRIFT, Newage and MIMAC.
Indirect detection experiments search for the products of the self-annihilation or decay of dark matter particles in outer space. For example, in regions of high dark matter density (e.g., the
centre of our galaxy) two dark matter particles could
annihilate to produce
gamma rays or Standard Model particle–antiparticle pairs.[152] Alternatively, if a dark matter particle is unstable, it could decay into Standard Model (or other) particles. These processes could be detected indirectly through an excess of gamma rays,
antiprotons or
positrons emanating from high density regions in our galaxy or others.[153] A major difficulty inherent in such searches is that various astrophysical sources can mimic the signal expected from dark matter, and so multiple signals are likely required for a conclusive discovery.[50][113]
A few of the dark matter particles passing through the Sun or Earth may scatter off atoms and lose energy. Thus dark matter may accumulate at the center of these bodies, increasing the chance of collision/annihilation. This could produce a distinctive signal in the form of high-energy
neutrinos.[154] Such a signal would be strong indirect proof of WIMP dark matter.[50] High-energy neutrino telescopes such as
AMANDA,
IceCube and
ANTARES are searching for this signal.[43]: 298
The detection by
LIGO in
September 2015 of gravitational waves opens the possibility of observing dark matter in a new way, particularly if it is in the form of
primordial black holes.[155][156][157]
Many experimental searches have been undertaken to look for such emission from dark matter annihilation or decay, examples of which follow.
The
Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope observed more gamma rays in 2008 than expected from the
Milky Way, but scientists concluded this was most likely due to incorrect estimation of the telescope's sensitivity.[158]
The
Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope is searching for similar gamma rays.[159] In 2009, an as yet unexplained surplus of gamma rays from the Milky Way's galactic center was found in Fermi data. This
Galactic Center GeV excess might be due to dark matter annihilation or to a population of pulsars.[160] In April 2012, an analysis of previously available data from Fermi's
Large Area Telescope instrument produced statistical evidence of a 130 GeV signal in the gamma radiation coming from the center of the Milky Way.[161] WIMP annihilation was seen as the most probable explanation.[162]
The
PAMELA experiment (launched in 2006) detected excess
positrons. They could be from dark matter annihilation or from
pulsars. No excess
antiprotons were observed.[165]
An alternative approach to the detection of dark matter particles in nature is to produce them in a laboratory. Experiments with the
Large Hadron Collider (LHC) may be able to detect dark matter particles produced in collisions of the LHC
proton beams. Because a dark matter particle should have negligible interactions with normal visible matter, it may be detected indirectly as (large amounts of) missing energy and momentum that escape the detectors, provided other (non-negligible) collision products are detected.[172] Constraints on dark matter also exist from the
LEP experiment using a similar principle, but probing the interaction of dark matter particles with electrons rather than quarks.[173] Any discovery from collider searches must be corroborated by discoveries in the indirect or direct detection sectors to prove that the particle discovered is, in fact, dark matter.
Because dark matter has not yet been identified, many other hypotheses have emerged aiming to explain the same observational phenomena without introducing a new unknown type of matter. The theory underpinning most observational evidence for dark matter, general relativity, is well-tested on solar system scales, but its validity on galactic or cosmological scales has not been well proven.[174] A suitable modification to general relativity can in principle conceivably eliminate the need for dark matter. The best-known theories of this class are
MOND and its relativistic generalization
tensor–vector–scalar gravity (TeVeS),[175]f(R) gravity,[176]negative mass,
dark fluid,[177][178][179] and
entropic gravity.[180]Alternative theories abound.[181][182]
Primordial black holes are considered candidates for components of dark matter.[99][97][183][184] Early constraints on primordial black holes as dark matter usually assumed most black holes would have similar or identical ("monochromatic") mass, which was disproven by LIGO/Virgo results.[95][96][98]
In 2024, a review by
Bernard Carr and colleagues concluded that primordial black holes forming in the
quantum chromodynamics epoch prior to 10–5 seconds after the Big Bang can explain most observations attributed to dark matter. Such black hole formation would result in an extended mass distribution today, "with a number of distinct bumps, the most prominent one being at around one solar mass."[13]
A problem with alternative hypotheses is that observational evidence for dark matter comes from so many independent approaches (see the "observational evidence" section above). Explaining any individual observation is possible but explaining all of them in the absence of dark matter is very difficult. Nonetheless, there have been some scattered successes for alternative hypotheses, such as a 2016 test of gravitational lensing in entropic gravity[185][186][187] and a 2020 measurement of a unique MOND effect.[188][189]
The prevailing opinion among most astrophysicists is that while modifications to general relativity can conceivably explain part of the observational evidence, there is probably enough data to conclude there must be some form of dark matter present in the universe.[17]
In popular culture
Dark matter regularly appears as a topic in hybrid periodicals that cover both factual scientific topics and science fiction,[190]
and dark matter itself has been referred to as "the stuff of science fiction".[191]
Mention of dark matter is made in works of fiction. In such cases, it is usually attributed extraordinary physical or magical properties, thus becoming inconsistent with the hypothesized properties of dark matter in physics and cosmology. For example:
Luminiferous aether – A once theorized invisible and infinite material with no interaction with physical objects, used to explain how light could travel through a vacuum (now disproven)
Notes
^Since dark energy does not count as matter, this is 26.8/4.9 + 26.8 = 0.845.
^Some dark matter candidates interact with ordinary matter via the
weak interaction, but the weak interaction is weak, making any direct detection very difficult.
^
However, in the modern cosmic era, this neutrino field has cooled and started to behave more like matter and less like radiation.
^Dark energy is a term often used nowadays as a substitute for cosmological constant. It is basically the same except that dark energy might depend on scale factor in some unknown way rather than necessarily being constant.
^This is a consequence of the
shell theorem and the observation that spiral galaxies are spherically symmetric to a large extent (in 2D).
^The three neutrino types already observed are indeed abundant, and dark, and matter, but because their individual masses are almost certainly too tiny to account for more than a small fraction of dark matter, due to limits derived from
large-scale structure and high-
redshift galaxies.[113]
^
"One widely held belief about dark matter is it cannot cool off by radiating energy. If it could, then it might bunch together and create compact objects in the same way baryonic matter forms planets, stars, and galaxies. Observations so far suggest dark matter doesn't do that – it resides only in diffuse halos ... As a result, it is extremely unlikely there are very dense objects like stars made out of entirely (or even mostly) dark matter." — Buckley & Difranzo (2018)[136]
^Carroll, Sean (2007). Dark Matter, Dark Energy: The dark side of the universe. The Teaching Company. Guidebook Part 2 p. 46. ... dark matter: An invisible, essentially collisionless component of matter that makes up about 25 percent of the energy density of the universe ... it's a different kind of particle... something not yet observed in the laboratory ...
^Ferris, Timothy (January 2015).
"Dark matter". Hidden cosmos. National Geographic Magazine. Archived from
the original on 25 December 2014. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
^Poincaré, H. (1906).
"La Voie lactée et la théorie des gaz" [The Milky Way and the theory of gases]. Bulletin de la Société astronomique de France (in French). 20: 153–165.
^Kapteyn, Jacobus Cornelius (1922). "First attempt at a theory of the arrangement and motion of the sidereal system". Astrophysical Journal. 55: 302–327.
Bibcode:
1922ApJ....55..302K.
doi:
10.1086/142670. It is incidentally suggested when the theory is perfected it may be possible to determine 'the amount of dark matter' from its gravitational effect. (emphasis in original)
^Oort, Jan H. (1932). "The force exerted by the stellar system in the direction perpendicular to the galactic plane and some related problems". Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of the Netherlands. 6: 249–287.
Bibcode:
1932BAN.....6..249O.
^Zwicky, F. (1933). "Die Rotverschiebung von extragalaktischen Nebeln" [The red shift of extragalactic nebulae]. Helvetica Physica Acta. 6: 110–127.
Bibcode:
1933AcHPh...6..110Z.
From p 125: "Um, wie beobachtet, einen mittleren Dopplereffekt von 1000 km/sek oder mehr zu erhalten, müsste also die mittlere Dichte im Comasystem mindestens 400 mal grösser sein als die auf Grund von Beobachtungen an leuchtender Materie abgeleitete. Falls sich dies bewahrheiten sollte, würde sich also das überraschende Resultat ergeben, dass dunkle Materie in sehr viel grösserer Dichte vorhanden ist als leuchtende Materie." (In order to obtain an average Doppler effect of 1000 km/s or more, as observed, the average density in the Coma system would thus have to be at least 400 times greater than that derived on the basis of observations of luminous matter. If this were to be confirmed, the surprising result would then follow that dark matter is present in very much greater density than luminous matter.)
^
abcdRandall, Lisa (2015). Dark Matter and the Dinosaurs: The astounding interconnectedness of the Universe. New York, NY: Ecco / HarperCollins Publishers.
ISBN978-0-06-232847-2.
^Baumann, Daniel.
"Cosmology: Part III"(PDF). Mathematical Tripos. Cambridge University. pp. 21–22. Archived from
the original(PDF) on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 24 January 2017.
^Markevitch, M.; Randall, S.; Clowe, D.; Gonzalez, A. & Bradac, M. (16–23 July 2006).
Dark matter and the Bullet Cluster(PDF). 36th COSPAR Scientific Assembly. Beijing, China.
Archived(PDF) from the original on 21 August 2006. Abstract only
^Bansal, Saurabh; Barron, Jared; Curtin, David; Tsai, Yuhsin (27 July 2023), "Precision Cosmological Constraints on Atomic Dark Matter", Journal of High Energy Physics, 2023 (10): 95,
arXiv:2212.02487,
Bibcode:
2023JHEP...10..095B,
doi:
10.1007/JHEP10(2023)095, leading to a better fit than ΛCDM or ΛCDM + dark radiation
^Wyrzykowski, L.; Skowron, J.; Kozlowski, S.; Udalski, A.; Szymanski, M.K.; Kubiak, M.; et al. (2011). "The OGLE View of Microlensing towards the Magellanic Clouds. IV. OGLE-III SMC Data and Final Conclusions on MACHOs". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 416 (4): 2949–2961.
arXiv:1106.2925.
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S2CID118660865.
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^"Baryonic Matter". astronomy.swin.edu.au. Melbourne, Victoria, Australia: Swinburne University of Technology: Cosmos: The Swinburne Astronomy Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved 3 October 2023.
^Vittorio, N.; J. Silk (1984). "Fine-scale anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background in a universe dominated by cold dark matter". Astrophysical Journal Letters. 285: L39–L43.
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^Umemura, Masayuki; Satoru Ikeuchi (1985). "Formation of Subgalactic Objects within Two-Component Dark Matter". Astrophysical Journal. 299: 583–592.
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abDavis, M.; Efstathiou, G.; Frenk, C.S.; White, S.D.M. (15 May 1985). "The evolution of large-scale structure in a universe dominated by cold dark matter". Astrophysical Journal. 292: 371–394.
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^The Dark Matter Group.
"An Introduction to Dark Matter". Dark Matter Research. Sheffield: University of Sheffield. Archived from
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^"Blowing in the Wind". Kavli News. Sheffield:
Kavli Foundation. Archived from
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^"Did gravitational wave detector find dark matter?". Johns Hopkins University. 15 June 2016. Retrieved 20 June 2015. While their existence has not been established with certainty, primordial black holes have in the past been suggested as a possible solution to the dark matter mystery. Because there is so little evidence of them, though, the primordial black hole–dark matter hypothesis has not gained a large following among scientists. The LIGO findings, however, raise the prospect anew, especially as the objects detected in that experiment conform to the mass predicted for dark matter. Predictions made by scientists in the past held conditions at the birth of the universe would produce many of these primordial black holes distributed approximately evenly in the universe, clustering in halos around galaxies. All this would make them good candidates for dark matter.
^Albert, J.; Aliu, E.; Anderhub, H.; Antoranz, P.; Backes, M.; Baixeras, C.; et al. (2008). "Upper Limit for γ-Ray Emission above 140 GeV from the Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy Draco". The Astrophysical Journal. 679 (1): 428–431.
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