Pronouns
| Type of Pronoun |
Nominative | Genitive | Locative | Neutral |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | ||||
| 2s. | ||||
| 3s. | ||||
| 1p. (incl.) | ||||
| 1p. (excl.) | ||||
| 2p. | ||||
| 3p. |
Phonemes
| Consonants | Vowels | Diphthongs | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Rukai (Mantauran) | 15 | 4 | |
| Tsou (Tfuya) | |||
| Pazih (Auran) | 17 | 4 | 4 |
| Atayal (Mayrinax) | |||
| Seediq (Teruku) | |||
| Siraya | 18-20 | 7 | 6 |
| Bunun (Takivatan) | |||
| Paiwan (Kaɬaɬau) | 23-24 | 4 | |
| Puyuma (Nanwang) | 18 | 4 |
Proto-Austronesian
The symbols below are frequently used in reconstructed Proto-Austronesian words.
- *C: voiceless alveolar affricate
- *c: voiceless palatal affricate
- *q: uvular or glottal stop
- *z: voiced palatal affricate
- *D: voiced retroflex stop
- *j: palatalized voiced velar stop
- *S: voiceless alveolar fricative
- *N: palatalized alveolar lateral
- *r: alveolar flap
- *R: alveolar or uvular trill
| Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Retroflex | Velar | Glottal | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unvoiced stop | p /p/ | t /t/ | k /k/ | q /q/ or /ʔ/ | ||||||||
| Voiced stop | b /b/ | d /d/ | z /ɟ͡ʝ/ | D /ɖ/ | g /g/; j ( palatalized) | |||||||
| Nasal | m /m/ | n /n/ | ɲ /ɲ/ | ŋ /ŋ/ | ||||||||
| Fricative | S /s/ | s /ç/ | h /h/ | |||||||||
| Affricate | C | c | ||||||||||
| Lateral | l /l/ | N /lʹ/ | ||||||||||
| Tap or trill | r /ɾ/, R /r/ or /ʀ/ | |||||||||||
| Approximant | w /w/ | y /j/ | ||||||||||
Vowels include a, i, u, and ə. Diphthongs include *-ay, *-aw, *-uy, and *-iw.
| Height | Front | Central | Back | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Close | i /i/ | u /u/ | |||||
| Mid | ə /ə/ | ||||||
| Open | a /a/ |
Igorots
Below is a list of northern Luzon ethnic groups organized by linguistic classification.
-
Northern Luzon languages
- Ilocano (Ilocos Norte and Ilocos Sur)
- Northern Cordilleran
- Isnag (northern Apayao Province)
- Gaddang (Nueva Vizcaya and Isabela)
- Ibanagic
- Ibanag (Cagayan and Isabela)
- Itawis (Southern Cagayan)
- Yogad (Isabela)
- Central Cordilleran
- Kalinga-Itneg
- Kalinga (Kalinga Province)
- Itneg (Abra Province)
- Nuclear
- Ifugao (Ifugao Province)
- Balangao (eastern Mountain Province)
- Bontok (central Mountain Province)
- Kankanaey (western Mountain Province, northern Benguet)
- Kalinga-Itneg
- Southern Cordilleran
- Ilongot (eastern Nueva Vizcaya, western Quirino)
- Pangasinan (Pangasinan)
- Ibaloi (southern Benguet Province)
Tables
| Common nouns | Singular personal nouns |
Plural personal nouns | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Neutral | *[y]a, *u | *i | |
| Nominative | *k-a | *k-u | |
| Genitive | *n-a, *n-u | *n-i | *n-i-a |
| Accusative | *C-a, *C-u | *C-i | |
| Oblique | *s-a, *s-u | ||
| Locative | *d-a |
In 2006, Malcolm Ross also proposed seven different pronominal categories for persons. The categories are listed below, with the Proto-Austronesian first person singular ("I") given as examples.
- Neutral (e.g., PAN *i-aku)
- Nominative 1 (e.g., PAN *aku)
- Nominative 2 (e.g., PAN *=ku, *[S]aku)
- Accusative (e.g., PAN *i-ak-ən)
- Genitive 1 (e.g., PAN *=[a]ku)
- Genitive 2 (e.g., PAN *(=)m-aku)
- Genitive 3 (e.g., PAN *n-aku)
The following is from Ross' 2002 proposal of the Proto-Austronesian pronominal system, which contains five categories, including free, free polite, and three genitive categories.
| Free | Free polite | Genitive 1 | Genitive 2 | Genitive 3 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1s. | *[i-]aku | - | *=ku | *maku | *n-aku |
| 2s. | *[i-]Su | *[i-]ka-Su | *=Su | *miSu | *ni-Su |
| 3s. | *s(i)-ia | - | (*=ia) | - | *n(i)-ia |
| 1p. (excl.) | *i-ami | *[i-]k-ami | *=mi | *mami | *n(i)-ami |
| 1p. (incl.) | *([i])ita | *[i-]k-ita | *=ta | *mita | *n-ita |
| 2p. | *i-amu | *[i-]k-amu | *=mu | *mamu | *n(i)-amu |
| 3p. | si-da | - | (*=da) | - | ni-da |
Gelao
Special characters (see
alveolo-palatal consonant):
ɕ ȵ ɲ ŋ ȶ ʑ ð ʔ
ɐ ə ɛ ɔ ɯ ɤ ʊ ɨ
tɕ (j)
Liuzhi -> Zhenfeng
- pl -> pj
- plh -> p
- ml -> m
- mp -> m
- ȵtɕ -> ɲ/ȵ
- ŋk -> ŋ/k
Consonants
Zhenfeng Gelao has the following consonants. [1]
| Labial | Coronal | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| plain | pal. | lab. | plain | plain | lab. | plain | lab. | plain | lab. | ||||
| Plosive | plain voiceless | p | pʲ | pʷ | t | tʷ | tʃ | tʃʷ | k | kʷ | q | qʷ | ʔ |
| voiceless aspirated | pʰ | pʲʰ | pʷʰ | tʰ | tʃʰ | kʰ | kʷʰ | qʰ | |||||
| plain voiced | b | bʲ | bʷ | d | ɡ | ɡʷ | |||||||
| voiced aspirated | bʱ | bʲʱ | dʱ | ɡʱ | |||||||||
| Fricative | voiceless | f | θ | θʷ | ʃ | ʃʷ | χ | h | |||||
| voiced | ð | ðʷ | ɣ | ||||||||||
| Nasal | voiceless aspirated | m̥ʰ | n̥ʰ | ɲ̊ʰ | ŋ̊ʰ | ||||||||
| voiced | m | mʲ | mʷ | n | ɲ | ŋ | ŋʷ | ||||||
| Laterals | voiceless | lʱ | |||||||||||
| voiced | l | ||||||||||||
| Approximant | voiceless | ȷ̊ | w̥ | ||||||||||
| voiced | j | ɥ | w | ||||||||||
Numerals
- *(e)sa
Originally, Proto-Austronesian numeral for ‘ one’ is *sa. Like other monosyllabic Proto-Austronesian words, it is often preceded by particle e-. *sa is used for indefinite article (referring number) and written as prefix. So *sapuluq, *saRatus, *saRibu actually mean ‘a ten’, ‘a hundred’ and ‘a thousand’; *sarumaq means ‘a house’, *sabuaq means ‘a fruit’, etc. Tagalog and Hiligaynon isa, Acehnese sa, and even Sawu ahi are directly derived from *(e)sa. Several languages add Proto-Austronesian adjectival particle *ma- in front of *(e)sa such as Ilokano maysa, Toraja misa and Mandar mesa.
Malay satu is derived from two Proto-Austronesian words *(e)sa and *Cau. *Cau means ‘man, people, person’, as in Austronesian languages Torajan tau, Mandar and Tagalog tao, Hiligaynon tawo. Meanwhile in other Austronesian languages, *Cau is added with suffix –an as *Cauan to get the meaning ‘lord, lordship’ or just for honorific title to a person as in Malay tuan ‘lord, master’, Tuhan ‘Lord (God)’, tuanku ‘my lord, my master’ or Acehnese tengku and teuku for honorific titles (both originally mean ‘my lord, my master’; but tengku is derived from Proto-Austronesian *Cauan and *–ku, while teuku is derived from *Cau and *–ku). As numeral, *Cau also performed in Old Javanese *tunggal. It is also suggested that Oceanic word for ‘one’ come from *Cau ( Māori and Rapanui tahi and Hawaiian (e)kahi). Madurese also use settong as Malay satu.
Sundanese and Modern Javanese hiji and siji have older forms sahiji and sawiji. Both come from two Proto-Austronesian words *sa and *biji. *biji means ‘seed (of a fruit)’ as Malay word biji. So sahiji and sawiji originally mean ‘a seed’.
Like Malay satu, Batak sada is derived from two Proto-Austronesian words, *(e)sa and *da. *da also means ‘man, people, person’, but *da is always used for honorific title to a person as in Balinese ida (as Brahmin caste titles : Ida Bagus, Ida Ayu) and Minangkabau uda (means ‘elder brother’). Often, *da and *tu are combined as *datu for superior honorific as Malay datuk (title for landlord, chief), and Javanese ratu (means ‘king’, but in Malay or Indonesian, ratu means ‘queen’). Javanese also use dhatu beside ratu (both come from *datu) in confixed words kedhaton and k(e)raton (from Proto-Austronesian *qadatuan), both mean ‘palace’ in Javanese, but only k(e)raton also means ‘kingdom’). As numeral meaning ‘one’, *da also performs in Tetun ida, Fijian dua and Malagasy iray. Nias sara is also derived from *(e)sa and *da.
- *duSa
*duSa means ‘ two’. This original form only appears in Formosan languages (as Bunun and Paiwanic dusa), meanwhile Malayo-Polynesian seems to prefer form *dua as in most Austronesian languages such as Malay, Sundanese, Balinese, Batak and Torajan dua, Madurese duwe, Achinese duwa, Hiligaynon duha or even Nias rua, Malagasy roa and Oceanic languages (Māori, Fijian and Rapanui rua, Hawaiian (e)lua).
Tagalog dalawa (older form : dadawa) also seems to be derived from *dua or exactly the reduplicaton of *dua as *duadua (as Mandar daqduaq).
Actually the numeral ‘two’ in Javanese is ro (derived from Old Javanese *rwa for Modern Javanese does not allow diphthongs, and derived from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *dua as Nias, Malagasy and Oceanic languages change phoneme d into r). Javanese loro has older form roro, the reduplication of ro. Single ro only appears for referring number of noun as rong(ro + particle –ng, just like Tagalog dalawang from dalawa + -ng) in rong puluh, rong atus, rong ewu, mean as follows ‘twenty’ or ‘two tens’, ‘two hundreds’ and ‘two thousands’ (cf. Tagalog dalawampu, dalawang daan, dalawang libo); rong omah ‘two houses’ ('Tagalog dalawang bahay); rong tahun ‘two years’ (Tagalog dalawang taon), etc.
It is false cognate to correlate Minangkabau duo ‘and Latin *duo ‘two’. Minangkabau duo is derived from Malay dua and from Proto-Austronesian *duSa. Meanwhile Latin *duo was derived from Proto-Indo-European *duwo and cognate with English two.
- *telu
Most Austronesian languages including Oceanic languages agree to use *telu for numeral ‘ three’ as Javanese telu, Sundanese tilu, Batak and Nias tolu, Malagasy telo, Mandar talluq, Māori toru, Hawaiian (e)kolu, etc.
Tagalog tatlo seems to be derived from Proto-Austronesian *telutelu, the reduplication of *telu.
It is interesting to discuss the etymology of Malay mysterious numeral tiga. It is said that tiga (‘three’) correlates philosophically with another Malay word telur (means ‘ egg’, from Proto-Austronesian *qiCeluR). The (philosophical) correlation is that an egg has three parts : shell, albumen and nucleus. It is also mysterious in most Austronesian languages such as Mandar word for ‘egg’ is talog, Tagalog itlog or Balinese talur, sounds like talluq, tatlo and telu (‘three’)., meanwhile Javanese has word tigan (possibly from tiga + suffix –an) for polite form ( krama) of endog (‘egg’)
- *S(e)paC
*S(e)paC means ‘ four’ in Proto-Austronesian. This form only appears in Formosan languages (as Paiwanic s(e)pac), meanwhile Malayo-Polynesian seems to prefer form *(e)pat as in most Austronesian languages such as Tagalog apat, Sundanese and Batak opat, Nias ofa, Mandar appeq, Tetun hat, Sawu apa, or even Oceanic languages (Māori wha Hawaiian e)ha).
Malay word empat is derived.from *epat with euphony m. Malagasy efatra also comes from *epat for Austronesian ending -t (Proto-Austronesian -C) always becomes –tra in Malagasy (cf. Malagasy lanitra ‘sky’, has Malay and Javanese cognate langit are derived from Proto-Austronesian *langiC). Javanese papat actually is the reduplication of pat. pat only appears for referring number of noun as patang (pat + particle –(a)ng) in patang puluh, patang atus, patang ewu, mean as follows ‘forty’ or ‘four tens’, ‘four hundreds’ and ‘four thousands’; patang wong ‘four persons’; patang dina ‘four days’.
- *lima
*lima in Proto-Austronesian means ‘ five’. Most Austronesian languages including Oceanic languages agree to use *lima for numeral ‘five’ as Sundanese, Malay, Javanese, Batak, Nias, Mandar and Tagalog lima, Māori rima, Hawaiian (e)lima, etc. Malagasy dimy also comes from *lima for l sometimes becomes d and –a becomes -y in Malagasy. It is said that Proto-Austronesian *lima (‘five’) correlates philosophically with another word *qalima means ‘ hand’. The (philosophical) correlation is that a hand has five fingers. Several Austronesian languages such as Mandar, Tetun and Balinese, lima is homonym means ‘five’ and well as ‘hand’, while others try to distinguish them as *lima for ‘five’ and use other word *tangaen (correlates with Proto-Austronesian verb *kaen ‘to eat’ means ‘something used for eating’) for ‘hand’ (as Malay and Javanese tangan and Malagasy tanana)
- *(e)nem
Most Austronesian languages including Oceanic languages agree to use *(e)nem for numeral ‘ six’ such as Javanese enem, Malay enam, Batak onom, Sawu anna, Tagalog anim, Nias and Oceanic (Māori, Fijian and Rapanui) ono and Hawaiian (e)ono, etc. Malagasy enina is also derived from Proto-Austronesian *(e)nem, as –em in Malagasy becomes -ina. (cf. Tetun nen and Mandar nasalized as annang for ‘six’).
Sundanese word for ‘six’, genep seems to have etymological meaning ‘even (number)’, opposite of odd, as Malay word genap means. It may be correlates with Javanese polite number gangsal ‘five’ whose has original meaning ‘odd number’ as Malay gasal.
- *piCu
Most Austronesian languages including Oceanic languages agree to use *piCu for numeral ‘ seven’ such as Javanese, Balinese, Batak, Mandar and Torajan pitu, Nias fitu, Madurese petto, Tagalog pito, Malagasy fito, Tetun hitu, Māori whitu, Fijian vitu, Rapanui hita, Hawaiian (e)hiku, etc.
There is Austronesian group use form *tuju as numeral ‘seven’. Malay, Sundanese, Dayak languages (Borneo group) and Achinese belong to it as Malay and Sundanese tujuh, Achinese tujoh (Cham tijuh) and many forms of Dayak languages : tuju, ju, tulu, turu, tudu and tusu. *tuju is originally Proto-Austronesian verb means ‘to go (toward)’ as Malay preserves it as a preposition menuju means ‘toward’ or a noun tujuan means ‘goal, purpose’. It may has philosophical meaning for Austronesian people that ‘seven’ is ‘a goal number or a good number’ as other people in the world also believe (Semitic seven days in a week and the seventh day sabath as the day of God). There are many Austronesian rituals based on number seven as a good number such as the celebration of the seventh month of pregnancy as in Malay called tujuh-bulanan ( means ‘seven months’) and in Javanese mitoni (‘to be seven’, Javanese verb from numeral pitu). Beside ‘seven’, Austronesian also have other good numbers for celebrating the time of life cycle (pregnancy, birth, marriage or even death) such as ‘three’ (as philosophy of ‘egg’), ‘forty’, ‘hundred’ and ‘thousand’.
- *walu
*walu also common term in most Austronesian languages including Oceanic for numeral ‘ eight’ such as Javanese wolu (Old Javanese *wwalu), Batak uwalu, Nias and Tetun walu, Sawu aru, Madurese ballu, Tagalog walo, Malagasy valo, Māori waru, Hawaiian (e)walu, etc. Several Austronesian use the meaning ‘take two’ for ‘eight’ as Malay delapan, Sundanese dalapan and Achinese lapan (These are derived from two words *dua and *alapan since *alapan means ‘taking’, from verb *alap ‘to take’ as Sundanese verb ngalap also means ‘to take’). These mean ‘(ten) take two’ or ‘(ten) minus two’. Just like other languages in the world whose minus-one and minus-two numbering system (as Latin *duodeviginti, *undeviginti for ‘eighteen’ and ‘nineteen’, literally meant ‘two from twenty’ and ‘one from twenty’ or Syriac ukha means ’nine’, literally means ‘and one’ or ‘minus one’), Austronesian also tend to use the system such as Mandar arua (derived from Proto-Austronesian *qadua as Mandar sister language Toraja karua).
- *Siwa
*Siwa was Proto-Austronesian language for numeral ‘ nine’. It derived into Austronesian languages as, Batak, Balinese and Tetun sia, Sawu heo, Nias siwa, Malagasy sivy, Māori iwa, Hawaiian (e)iwa, etc. Philippines languages (Tagalog, Cebuano, Hilgaynon) use siyam as numeral ‘nine’ (derived from *Siwang, *Siwa + particle –ng)
Several Austronesians use the meaning ‘(ten) take one’ for numeral ‘nine’ as ‘(ten) take two’ for ‘eight’ such as Malay sembilan, Sundanese salapan and Achinese sikureung. Malay sembilan is derived from se- (Proto-Austronesian *(e)sa) and ambilan, whose same meaning with *alapan (ambil is Malay word for verb ‘to take’). Sundanese salapan is derived from *(e)sa and *alapan. Meanwhile Achinese sikureung is derived from *(e)sa and *quRang ‘less, minus’ (Malay and Javanese kurang, Tagalog kulang). Javanese and Madurese sanga also seems to use the minus-one numbering system as sanga is derived from Proto-Austronesian *(e)sa and *nga, another form of word *ka (verb ‘open’, cf. Javanese menga ‘open, to be open’, Malay buka ‘open, to open’ and menganga ‘wideopen’) so probably its original meaning is ‘one open (to ten)’. Mandar amesa and Torajan kasera (each is derived from *qamaesa and *qasada, analogue to arua and karua ‘eight’ from *qadua) also has meaning ‘(ten) take one’
- *(sa)puluq
Originally it was *puluq means ‘ ten’. *sapuluq means ‘a ten’ or ‘one ten’ (‘one’ refers the number of the noun). Austronesian use *puluq for numbering the tenfold numbers : twenty, thirty, etc, while sapuluq simply means ‘ten’. *sapuluq often was changed into *sang puluq (from *(e)sa + particle –ng). *sapuluq derives into Malay and Javanese as sepuluh, Sundanese sapuluh, Mandar sappulo.
*sang puluq derives into Batak sampulu, Tagalog sampu, Ilocano sangapulo, Torajan sang pulo, Bikol sampulo, Tetun sanulu, Sawu henguru and also Rapanui angahuru. Meanwhile Buginese pulo, Malagasy folo and Achinese ploh directly come from *puluq.
And just like *(e)sa turned into *maesa, *puluq was often also added with adjectival prefix *ma- as *mapuluq. Cebuano napuluq, Hiligaynon napulo, Sangir-Talaud mapulo come from that way.
Balinese adopts Sanskrit *dasa (derived from Proto-Indo-European *dekm) for numeral ‘ten’ as Javanese does into sedasa, the polite form (krama) for sepuluh.
Notes
- ^ 李锦芳/Li, Jinfang and 周国炎/Guoyan Zhou. 仡央语言探索/Geyang yu yan tan suo. Beijing, China: 中央民族大学出版社/Zhong yang min zu da xue chu ban she, 1999.