The United States Weather Bureau

History

Early observations and forecasts

Signal Service weather service

In 1869, Colonel Albert J. Myer, leader of the U.S. Signal Corps, proposed to the United States Secretary of War that during peacetime a system of weather records and storm warnings could be implemented. Meanwhile, scientist Increase A. Lapham, ^[1] an observer for the Smithsonian Institution observation network founded in 1849 by Joseph Henry, ^[2] requested of the Chicago Academy of Sciences that network of storm warnings be implemented within the vicinity of Lake Michigan, ^[1] concerned about the high death marine death tolls on the Great Lakes at the time: in 1868 alone, storms damaged or capsized 1,164 ships, resulting in 321 deaths. ^[3] After Congressman Halbert E. Paine became aware of this, he suggested that Lapham also petition Congress for the establishment of a national weather service under the Signal Corps, which was later endorsed by numerous scientists, businesses, and other agencies, before being sent to Congress by Paine. ^[1] Although he first submitted a bill to Congress on 16 December 1869 providing for this, it was rewritten and resubmitted on 2 February 1870 with the assistance of Senator Henry Wilson. The joint resolution was passed by Congress on 4 February 1870 and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on 9 February, ^[4] permitting the collection of meteorological reports at military outposts along the Great Lakes and coastal areas and the transmission of information relating to storms' location and intensity via telegraph and marine signals. ^[5] A Congressional appropriation bill in 1871 provided for river level monitoring operations, ^[5] while an 1872 bill required the Secretary of War to release reports of value to agricultural and commercial interests while expanding the initial program nationwide. ^[6]

On 15 March 1870, Secretary of War William W. Belknap delegated the task of collecting weather observations to the Signal Corps. ^[4] Colonel Myer, meanwhile, bought weather instruments, trained workers, and set up telegraph communication. On 1 November, 24 Signal Corps observer-sergeants started recording data from the East Coast to Wyoming Territory, with civilians a majority of the Signal Corps' volunteers. The system swiftly expanded, ^[7] first assuming responsibility over Cleveland Abbe's Cincinnati network beginning in 1869, ^[2] then taking over the Army Medical Department's, ^[7] Henry's Smithsonian system, and Army Corps of Engineers'. Signal Corps engineers started construction on a separate telegraph network in 1873, first reaching Arizona and New Mexico Territories before extending to the Pacific Northwest. By 1880, 110 Signal Corps outposts routinely transmitted observations via the network, with over 500 individuals involved in the collection of such information. ^[7]

River level monitoring as funded by the 1871 bill was initiated in January 1872, ^[7] and by spring the Signal Corps began forecasting future river stages and flooding risks to assist mariners and alert locals in flood-prone areas. The Signal Corps' first weather map was created on 1 January 1871, while its first periodical weather forecast, a "probability", was issued on 19 February, published thrice daily for eight, later nine, separate regions, forecasting weather conditions, temperature, winds, and atmospheric pressure, ^[8] and by 1872, the Signal Corps's weather records began to be published periodically in the Monthly Weather Review. ^[9] Official weather forecasts were solely published in the service's central office in Washington, D.C. until 1881, when an observer in New York was authorized to produce local forecasts. ^[10] Eventually, predictions for individual states were devised, and were first printed in May 1886; in April 1889, the so-called "probabilities" became known as "forecasts". ^[8] Forecasts, initially made 24 hours in advance, were extended to 32 hours by July 1885, 36 hours by July 1888, and 48 hours by August 1898. ^[10] Around the same time, signal flags were hoisted to indicate wind direction, storm severity, and cold wave warnings. ^[8]

William B. Hazen succeeded Myer as Chief Signal Officer on 15 December 1880, ^[11] serving until his death in 1887. ^[12] Hazen stressed the importance of fundemental knowledge on meteorological phenomena including thunderstorms and tornadoes. Under his leadership, Sergeant John P. Finley published Report on the Character of Six Hundred Tornadoes, a compilation on information relating to tornadoes, their behavior, and geographic distribution between 1794 and 1881. ^[8] Other phenomena studied during the decade included air moisture, atmospheric electricity, weather balloons, thermometer exposure, and wet-bulb temperature conversion tables. ^[13] Decreases in federal funding in 1883 and 1884 pressured Hazen to halt observations at certain observations, while Congressional leaders doubted whether the responsibility of weather observation should be controlled by the military or if the Signal Corps' military effectiveness was being reduced by its meteorological responsibilities; despite this, the Signal Corps continued to open additional offices while expanding the breadth of its operations. ^[8] The Signal Service, collaborating with the British Meteorological Office, started issuing warnings on Atlantic storms in 1885, ^[13] and by 1886, cold-wave warning flags were placed at 290 points across the U.S., with predictions issued 30 hours in advance and transmitted via telegraph, telephone, and railroad; in addition, in 1887, the issuance of weekly crop outlooks began. ^[14]

Early years of the Weather Bureau

Although the weather service under the Signal Corps was initially established mainly for the interests of navigation, agricultural and commercial interests, as well as the general public, quickly realized the merits of such an agency and how it could operate better under civilian as opposed to military control. ^[6] Meanwhile, as the size of the U.S. military continued to be reduced throughout the late 1880s, the weather service of the Signal Corps became considerably more dependent on climate data recorded by civilian volunteers. ^[15] At the same time, the Signal Corps was becoming ever-more engrossed in its weather observation duties, and officials in the Department of War worried that in the case that the services provided by the Corps were needed, it would be unable to provide, its employees preoccupied with its meteorological commitments. A congressional commission evaluated that a national weather service should not be in military control, and several bills proposed its transfer to the Department of Agriculture. ^[13] In December 1889, President Benjamin Harrison requested the removal of weather service control from the Department of War; soon thereafter the Organic Act was approved by Congress, ^[15] and it was subsequently signed by President Harrison on 1 October 1890. At noon on 1 July 1891, the Signal Corps observation posts, telegraph lines, equipment, and "honorably discharged" employees involved with weather operations were transferred to the Department of Agriculture, ^[13] forming the United States Weather Bureau. ^[15]

The initial transition of power to the Department of Agriculture had the intentional effect of better serving farmers, but with the Wright brothers' first successful flights in 1903, the Weather Bureau again changed its focus, this time to aviation, whose progress in the United States closely followed the weather service's. ^[13] Weather maps and bulletins penetrated hotels, stores, offices, mail offices, railway stops, and trolley cars, while railroad baggage cars were utilized for displaying weather flags. The Rural Free Delivery system, meanwhile, was also used as a means of conveying forecasts, with isolated rural towns, previously unable to receive such information, now able to take advantage of this service as a means of receiving forecasts. ^[16] During the early 20th century, the Bureau attempted to keep pace with technological advancements, becoming the first federal government agency to embrace wireless telegraphy. ^[13] The completion of a transatlantic telegraph cable connecting Lisbon, the Azores, and New York in 1900 allowed the communication of meteorological observations and alerts between the U.S. and Europe, ^[16] and by 1902, the first Bureau forecast was sent to mariners out at sea. In 1905, the first wireless meteorological observations were received from a vessel at sea, and by 1907, the Weather Bureau had introduced daily weather observations between the U.S. and parts of Russia and eastern Asia; ^[13] eventually, by 1910, the Weather Bureau's sphere of coverage extended across almost the entire Northern Hemisphere. ^[16] Meanwhile at home, weekly agricultural forecasts began the same year, and after the sinking of the RMS Titanic, the Coast Guard established the International Ice Patrol in 1912. In 1913, the agency released its first fire weather outlook, and in 1914, it created an aerological division to take advantage of the potential uses of aviation in meteorology. ^[13]

After entering World War I, the necessity of meteorological services specialized for military use resulted in the formation of a specific meteorological section in the Science and Research Division of the Signal Corps, delegated with the task of supplying the American Expeditionary Forces, as well as the Army's domestic aviation, artillery, ordnance, and gas warfare pursuits with necessary weather statistics. The sole source of experienced meteorological professionals for the U.S. was the Weather Bureau, which, like many other government agencies at the time, were lacking in necessary resources for war. As a result, Weather Bureau station personnel educated individuals with suitable credentials before being sent to France for additional instruction. Following the end of the war, military and aviation weather services emerged as essential assets to the Weather Bureau at home. ^[17] Even after the Signal Corps' weather duties were drastically downsized, the expansion of military flights emphasized the need of aerological reconnaissance relating to meteorology; soon thereafter, weather officers were transferred to monitor Air Corps activities, while military meteorologists assisted in numerous major accomplishments, among which included making possible the success of the first around-the-world flight, conducted by Army pilots in 1924. Few efforts were made before World War I to initiate flying-weather forecasts, and most aviators made their own judgments on whether or not to fly; however, after it became evident that passenger and mail flights were to continue, such "flying by the seat of the pants" activities ceased. ^[18]

In 1918, the Weather Bureau introduced specifically-targeted statements and forecasts for military training flights as well as for Post Office air mail routes from Washington to New York and Chicago to New York. Trans-Atlantic flight attempts, domestic aviation interests, and balloon races pressed for additional weather information, and the Weather Bureau correspondingly inaugurated forecast centers in Washington, Chicago, and San Francisco. ^[16] In 1919, the Navy Aerological Service's work was permanently instituted, and in 1926, the passage of the Air Commerce Act bestowed the Weather Bureau with the responsibility of delivering relevant meteorological information to civilian flights. As a result, the rapid expansion of commercial flight over the subsequent two decades was accompanied by a similarly massive expansion of the Bureau and its activities. ^[18] In early 1921, the University of Wisconsin successfully broadcast the first formal radiotelephone weather forecast, and daily forecasts were subsequently initiated; by January 1923, weather reports, forecasts, river and aviation forecasts, crop information, as well as cold wave and other warnings were delivered by 140  radio stations across 39 states. ^[16] Later, in 1927, an in-house example of such a service under the control of the Weather Bureau was started on the West Coast. ^[18] The Bureau's telegraph era came to a close in 1928 after a teleprinter-based communications system was developed in response to the expanding needs of commercial flight. ^[16]

World War II and modernization

Starting in the 1930s, the bureau rapidly expanded its domestic forecasting operations as well as its technological and meteorological research. In 1934, the Weather Bureau inaugurated its Air Mass Analysis Section, acknowledging the existence of long-accepted techniques to forecast air mass interaction based on moisture levels and temperature values, and the division's practices were officially accepted by the bureau in 1938; ^[18] during World War I, scientists in isolated Norway noted that most "weather" occurs when two air masses of differing temperatures and humidity meet; since these resembled "battles" along the Western Front, the name "front" was given to the areas between air masses, creating a viable front theory and atmospheric model; as a result, fronts began to be labeled on Weather Bureau maps starting in 1936. ^[17] In 1935, the Bureau created an updated 24-hour hurricane warning system, and in 1939, an automatic telephone weather service was developed in New York City. In 1940, the Coast Guard took responsibility for oceanic weather stations in the Atlantic, while the Army Air Forces and Navy created a weather center in Washington, D.C. The same year, the Weather Bureau published its first five-day forecast, and transferred from the Department of Agriculture to the Department of Commerce to improve coordination between federal government aviation and commerce activities without lessening the agency's dedication to agricultural interests. ^[18] By 1940, domestic air traffic became so busy that the construction of Air Route Traffic Control Centers under the newly-formed Civil Aeronautics Administration became necessary; by mid-1945, 26 centers had been built, all supported by the Weather Bureau Flight Advisory Weather Services Center. ^[16]

Meanwhile, military weather operations continued and expanded, especially after the U.S. entered World War II; as a result, both the Air Force and Navy's meteorological sections rapidly allocated resources in preparation for deployment. While the Army Air Corps, the meteorological successor to the Signal Corps, was initially composed of about 200 individuals, it expanded to 19,000 by the summer of 1844. Similarly, the Aerological Service of the Navy originally consisted of 90 officers and 600 enlisted men before enlarging to 1,318 officers and roughly 5,000 enlisted men by August 1945. Throughout the war, the Weather Bureau, along with most non-military governmental agencies, faced shortfalls. Many male employees were replaced with women; only two were employed before the start of the war; by its conclusion, over 900 were actively working with the bureau. ^[18] In autumn 1942, the Army Air Forces began collecting weather data and predictions to other units, and by 1943, the 12th Weather Squadron was actively recording weather observations to assist both aerial and ground fighters in North Africa and Italy, while providing additional information for English Royal Air Force meteorologists in planning attacks as well. After the end of the war, the Army Air Forces' weather section provided aid for weather services of struggling nations, and in 1946, it was redesignated as the Air Weather Service, offering help to both United Nations troops during the Korean War as well as allied troops in Vietnam. ^[17]

Technological advancements following the end of World War II, especially for meteorology, were significant. The invention of the V-2 rocket during the war led to its use after the war as a new method of obtaining meteorological data. In turn, the advent of the meteorological rocket led to the realization of the potential of weather satellites; both provided clear visual evidence of the existence of wide-scale cloud patterns, which was not always evident from ground observations. The first prototype weather satellite was introduced on 1 April 1960. Prior to the satellite era, detailed meteorological records existed for only less than one-fifth of the world, with data from parts of Asia, Africa, and South America, as well as over the oceans, especially sparse; in addition, tropical cyclones, previously forming undetected out at sea, were now capable of being detected in advance. A third major advance during this era was the development of radar, while the capabilities of machine weather forecasting were being investigated as well. In the mid-1940s, John von Neumann and Jule G. Charney made the first attempts at utilizing early computers for weather forecasting. The Weather Bureau, Air Weather Service, Naval Weather Service, Institute for Advanced Study, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and University of Chicago together formed the Joint Numerical Weather Prediction Unit at the Weather Bureau Analysis Center in 1954, and by April 1955, computer-aided forecasts were produced regularly. ^[19] Four years later, in 1959, the Weather Bureau inaugurated a high-altitude service for commercial flights for roughly a third of the Northern Hemisphere, and two years later, in 1961, the bureau educated 4,000  Federal Aviation Administration employees to convey weather information to aviators. ^[16]

In May 1965, then-President Lyndon B. Johnson proposed to reorganize the Department of Commerce. His plan, sent to Congress, organized a new agency to "provide a single national focus to describe, understand, and predict" properties of the oceans, the upper- and lower-atmospheric conditions, and the characteristics of the earth. The resulting agency, known as the Environmental Science Services Administration, was officially founded on 13 July 1965. ^[19] Agencies within ESSA included the Weather Bureau, the ESSA Research Laboratories, the National Environmental Satellite Center, the Environmental Data Service, the Coast and Geodetic Survey, ^[18] and Central Radio Propagation Laboratory of the National Bureau of Standards. In 1966, the ESSA-1 and ESSA-2 satellites were launched, further expanding the Weather Bureau's satellite ventures, and a Nationwide Natural Disaster Warning Plan was suggested. ^[20] In addition, the Weather Bureau central office, previously housed in Washington, D.C., was moved to Silver Spring, Maryland. ^[21] In July 1970, the Weather Bureau was formally renamed as the National Weather Service, and its services were soon presided over by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of the Department of Commerce, thus ending the era of the Weather Bureau. ^[22]

Organizational structure

Activities

Observation technology

Kite observations were among the first attempts to gather meteorological information regarding the upper-atmosphere in the U.S. In August 1894, the first kite carrying a self-recording thermometer was displayed at Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory. The Weather Bureau dabbled in the usage of kite observatories from April to November 1898, later establishing a more permanent system in 1907. Self-recording equipment fastened to box kites reported temperature, ^[23] moisture, atmospheric pressure, and wind information. However, the kite observation system was shut down in 1933, mainly due to the low altitude achieved by such kites, with the highest achievable altitude only about 10,000 ft (3,000 m). In 1909, the bureau started utilizing "pilot" balloons to observe winds, monitoring their location with surveyor's equipment; however, as the trajectory of most were tracked visually, these also proved useless at high altitudes. By World War I, such balloons were equipped with meteorographs and reported temperature, pressure, and humidity values. After bursting, balloons descended to the ground via parachute, the meteorograph was retrieved, and the reported data was recorded. Later efforts to observe upper-atmospheric meteorological conditions included the use of aircraft observations up to 16,000 feet (4,900 m) above sea level. Aviation observations started in 1931, but due to high expenses and numerous deaths in accidents, the Weather Bureau ceased its aircraft observations in 1939, instead using balloon-carried radiosondes, transmitting meteorological information via radio to a surface station. The Weather Bureau first used radiosondes officially in 1937, launching to heights upwards of 100,000 ft (30,000 m), and by World War II, was monitoring radiosonde trajectories using radio-based direction-determining antennas; this in turn produced viable wind speed and direction readings. ^[24]

For the Weather Bureau, World War II marked the advent of radar and its use in observation and forecasting. In 1942, the U.S. Navy donated 25 spare radar-equipped aircraft, specialized for meteorological use. After the end of the war, the Weather Bureau recognized importance of weather radar in monitoring severe weather, such as strong thunderstorms and tropical cyclones. Radar waves could be used to determine the position, speed, and direction of storms, as signals reflected back from such systems, ^[24] also known as echoes, suggest the severity of precipitation present. Following several extreme tornadoes and hurricane landfalls during the mid-1950s, Congress approved the acquisition and distribution of long-distance weather radar equipment with weather applications. In 1959, radar systems for thunderstorm and tornado forecasting in the interior U.S. and hurricane tracking along the Gulf Coast and eastern seaboard were finished, and by the late 1960s, weather radar units were managed at 32 locations across the contiguous U.S. Upgrades to weather radar occurred in 1974, and by the early 1980s, 67 locations throughout the U.S. recorded weather radar observations, with mosaic radar images beginning to form. ^[25]

The origins of modern weather satellites can be traced to the invention of Robert H. Goddard's first atmospheric rocket probe, equipped with a thermometer and barometer, in 1929. In March 1947, a V-2 rocket took images of cloud patterns on Earth at heights of 70 to 105 miles (113 to 169 km) above surface level. Along with other similar launches, this signified the potential benefits of the existence of a weather satellite, and on 1 April 1960, the United States launched the first weather satellite, TIROS-1. ^[26] Among the immediate advantages of weather satellites, as opposed to a network of ground-level weather observation stations, was the ability to visually discern wide and continuous patterns over a massive area, which were further utilized with the usage of recorded radiation information in determining atmospheric temperatures and moisture levels as well as tracking upper-level winds and storm systems. Both visible and infrared satellite images were utilized in doing so: the varying colors on such images allow for the determination of cloud-top temperatures as well as other meteorological properties. ^[27]

Communication technology

Forecasts, reports, and warnings

Throughout its existence, the primary purpose of the Weather Bureau remained to provide weather reports and forecasting. As of 1922, observations were recorded twice daily, 8 a.m. and 8 p.m. New York time, at 200 stations throughout the U.S., with atmospheric pressure, dry- and wet-bulb temperature readings, wind speed and direction, precipitation amounts, and weather conditions recorded for the purpose of forecasting and the collection of climatological data. Information was then immediately sent via telegraph to the central Weather Bureau office and other locations; after the creation of wireless telegraphy systems, these land reports were enhanced by marine reports from vessels at sea. Following negotiations with steamship operators, ^[28] meteorological records were also collected aboard nearly a hundred commercial vessels in the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, and locations along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, used by the Weather Bureau for the creation of synoptic weather charts as well as forecasts and determining the necessity of storm warnings. ^[29] Daily observations from approximately forty other locations inland and by fifty seaward ships are also transmitted, but by special message, cablegram, or wireless as opposed to traditional telegraph. ^[30]

Using these daily observations, the regional offices of the Weather Bureau presiding over individual districts created twice-daily forecasts, while weekly forecasts of temperature and weather, in addition to special warnings of future weather conditions, were also issued. Each district officer created a set of five lettered maps; Map A depicted air pressure, temperature, wind speed and direction, rainfall, and weather conditions; B and C displayed pressure and temperature, respectively; D revealed cloudiness; and E showed wind speed and direction by elevation. ^[30] These weather maps permitted regional forecast officers to determine the position of storms and weather features, and also allowed for the monitoring and forecasting of storms' locations 36 to 48 hours prior to arrival in a certain area. Forecasts were transmitted via wireless telegraph systems managed by the Post Office Department in addition to privately-owned systems across the nation. Forecast information was also spread through evening press meetings for publication in morning newspapers and transmission via telegraph, telephone, and post, as well as display on weather maps and bulletins. Weather flags were also utilized for further distribution of forecasts, and many post offices, hotels, businesses, offices, and train stations featured Weather Bureau maps and forecasts. ^[31]

Notes

Citations

References

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• Clark, Robert A. (2004). "National Weather Service Hydrologic Program". Water Resources and Environmental History (Report). Reston, Virginia: American Society of Civil Engineers. ISBN  0-7844-0738-X.
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• Cressman, George P. (15 December 1965). "The Weather Bureau" (PDF). ESSA News. 1 (15). Environmental Science Services Administration Office of Public Information: 1–11.
• Gelber, Ben (2002). The Pennsylvania Weather Book. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. ISBN  0-8135-3056-3.
• Grice, Gary K. (1991). National Weather Service Snapshots: Portraits of a Rich Heritage. Silver Spring, Maryland: National Weather Service.
• Hosler, Charles L., Jr.; et al. (1994). "Appendix B: National Weather Service and Its Modernization—A Summary". Toward a New National Weather Service: National Weather Service Employee Feedback (Report). Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences. {{ cite report}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= ( help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( link)
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• Raines, Rebecca R. (1996). Getting the Message Through: A Branch History of the U.S. Army Signal Corps. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. ISBN  0-16-045351-8.
• Weber, Gustavus A. (1922). The Weather Bureau: Its History, Activities, and Organization. New York, New York: D. Appleton & Company.
• White, Robert M.; et al. (January 1970). ESSA. 5 (1). Environmental Science Services Administration Office of Public Information: 4–49 http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/journals/essa/QC851U461970jan.pdf. {{ cite journal}}: |section= ignored ( help); Explicit use of et al. in: |author= ( help); Missing or empty |title= ( help)
• White, Robert M. (July 1966). "A Beginning" (PDF). ESSA World. 1 (1). Environmental Science Services Administration Office of Public Information: 4–5.