*** Break out content into subheadings for WP:SS where possible (women, slavery)
What's needed
Kaldellis
P.441. C727
Military
The emperor, since the reign of Theodosius, was considered nomos empsychos the "living law", both lawgiver and administrator. From 457, almost every emperor was inaugurated by the patriarch. (Nicol). The senate had a role, but following 1204, the Komnenian aristocracy would formally replace the senate.(p.774 Kaldellis). The central government likely was at its peak in the decade before 572. (Kaldellis, 296).
The reign of Phocas was the first military overthrow since the third century, one of 43 emperors violently removed. (338 Kaldellis, Nicol p64)). There was nine dynasties between Heraclius in 610 and 1453, however only 30 of those 843 years was the empire not ruled by men linked by blood or kingship.(Nicol p63) Once the army was stationed closer to the capital it became more enmeshed in its politics, with an overthrow every 20 years. (Kaldellis)
Up until the 7th century, the state remained the same from the reigns of Diocletian and Constantine where the army was separate from the civil administration. At the beginning of the seventh century the Empire was divided into provinces that were ruled by civil governors who, though appointed by the emperor, were responsible to the relevant praetorian prefect. The provinces were grouped into four prefectures, and the army was still being organised separately. At the end of the eighth century the Empire was divided into districts called themes (thema, themata), which were governed by a military commander called a strategos (general) who was responsible for both the civil and military administration of the province, and directly responsible to the emperor. By the reign of Leo VI, farmers and soliders were more closely linked and when we see supporting the army woven into the tax system. (Kaldellis, 421)
Cities were run by a local council, central government representatives, and their bishops. Kaldellis P.185 The Arab destruction changed this, with city councils becoming extinct c 600. (pge 396, 409).
P.189: blues and green replaced the imperial cult to legitimise rule. Constantinople and public space created a political codependence. P. 222 the public space was a key component of what made Romania different. The emperor could not sell the empire. Discussed Anastasius accession the most detailed account we have Soldiers got a bonus every time a new emperor elected. P.229 talks about scholarship, the pride but decline of cities, not the case. P 296 Central government peak decade before 572 P.338 phokas. First military overthrow since the third century P. 387 empire had lost 75% of revenues P.396 city councils became extinct c 600 P.408 cities was kastra not polis, a sign of the timee P.409. Local city governace decline except bishops and army managed centrally from constantinople. Arab destruction P.421. Themata P.421. Farming and soldiers core to empire. Leo vi army was stationed closer to the capital and more enmeshed in its politics with an overthrow every 20 years
Largely based on Emperor
Diocletian's
Dominate reforms in the late 3rd and early 4th centuries, the
monarch was the sole and
absolute ruler, and his power was regarded as having divine origin.
[1]
[2] From Justinian I on, the emperor was considered
nomos empsychos, the "living law", both lawgiver and administrator.
[3] The
senate had ceased to have real political and legislative authority but remained as an honorary council with titular members, resembling an emergency or ceremonial meeting made up of powerful Constantinopolitan aristocrats, very often friends and relatives of the emperor. By the end of the 8th century, a civil administration focused on the court was formed as part of a large-scale consolidation of power in the capital (the rise to pre-eminence of the position of
sakellarios is related to this change).
[4] As a result of the different Orthodox and
Hellenistic political philosophies, from Justinian onwards, an administrative simplification was given way for the emperor's easier management of the state as the sole administrator and lawgiver of the sacred
Oikoumene.
[5] Definitive powers began to be attached around single entities who acted as
viceroys, starting with the
exarchs and their Justinianic-era predecessors
stratelates who shared the extraordinary powers of the emperor in their respective districts and only answered to him, they also being appointed by the sovereign directly.
The most important administrative reform, which probably started in the mid-7th century, was the creation of themes, where civil and military administration were embodied in a single person, the strategos, who, as the emperor's viceroy, shared his extraordinary powers in their respective "thémata", they too being also appointed by the emperor alone. The void left by the disappearance of the old semi-autonomous civic institutions was filled by the theme system, which entailed dividing Asia Minor into "provinces" occupied by distinct armies that assumed civil authority and answered directly to the imperial administration. This system may have had its roots in ad hoc measures taken by Heraclius, but over the course of the 7th century it developed into an entirely new system of imperial governance. [6] [7] [8] The massive cultural and institutional restructuring of the empire consequent on the loss of territory in the 7th century has been said to have caused a decisive break in east Mediterranean Romanness, and that the Byzantine state is subsequently best understood as another successor state rather than a real continuation of the Roman Empire. [9]
Despite the occasionally derogatory use of the terms "Byzantine" and " Byzantinism", the Byzantine bureaucracy had a distinct ability of adapting to the empire's changing situations. The elaborate system of titulature and precedence gave the court prestige and influence. Officials were arranged in strict order around the emperor and depended upon the royal will for their ranks. There were also actual administrative jobs, but authority could be vested in individuals rather than offices. [10]
In the 8th and 9th centuries, civil service constituted the clearest path to aristocratic status. However, beginning from the 9th century, the civil aristocracy was rivaled by an aristocracy of nobility. According to some studies of the Byzantine government, 11th-century politics were dominated by competition between the civil and the military aristocracy. During this period, Alexios I undertook important administrative reforms, including the creation of new courtly dignities and offices. [11]
theme.
——— (2006). The Byzantines. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-9833-2.This source is a published book. ——— (2009). Οι Βυζαντινοί (in Greek). Athens: Psychogios.
Agriculture was the main basis of taxation and the state sort to bind everyone to land for productivity [12] The emperor held the largest landownership, with senators after that; Local city councillors were typically the richest in their respective areas, though there would be a noticeable disparity between smaller and larger towns. [13] In an economic sense, a middle class existed, comprising merchants, smaller landowners, and artisans, yet it never coalesced as a distinct class. [14] Most land consisted of small and medium-sized lots, with family farms serving as the primary source of agriculture. [15] The status of the Coloni once referred to as proto-serfs but actually, free citizens remains a subject of historical debate. [16] Slaves would have been rare after the 7th century, primarily urban, with their socio-economic status tied principally to their masters. [17]
Inheritance rights were well developed, including for all women. [18] It may have been what prevented the emergence of large properties and a hereditary nobility capable of intimidating the state. [17] The prevalence of widows meant that women often controlled family assets as heads of households and businesses, contributing to the rise of some empresses to power. [19] Women were major taxpayers, landowners and as petitioners to the imperial court seeking resolution for primarily property-related disputes [20]
While women shared the same socio-economic status as men, they faced legal discrimination and had limitations in economic opportunities and vocations. [21] Prohibited from serving as soldiers, holding political office, or assuming Church roles, women essentially were assigned household responsibilities which were labour intensive. [22] They also worked in professions, such as in the food and textile industry, as medical staff, in public baths, had a heavy presence in retail, and were practicing members of artisan guilds. [23] They also worked in disreputable occupations: entertainers, tavern keepers, and prostitutes, allegedly where some saints and empresses originated from [24] Women participated in public life, engaging in social events such as dancing at festivals, processions, protests and attending the Hippodrome. [17] Women's rights would not be better in comparative societies, nor western Europe or America until the 19th century. [25]
In 741, marriage had become a Christian institution, and no longer a private contract. [26] Monogamy had been a Roman definition of marriage, but Christianity introduced a prohibition in divorce and sexual relations outside of marriage, bringing a change in power relations with slavery [27] Marriage was considered an institution to sustain the population, transfer property rights, support the elderly family, and the empress Theodora had said it was needed to restrict sexual hedonism. [28] Women usually married at ages 15-20, and were used as a way to connect men and create economic benefit among families [29] The societal norm dictated that women should bear up to six children, yet only 2-3 were expected to survive. [30] Divorce could be done by mutual consent but would be restricted over time, such as only if joining a convent. [31]
Education maintained a standard and a continuation from the Hellenistic and Ancient Roman era's, and right through the Byzantine era. [32] Education was voluntary but required financial means to attend. [33] There is no evidence that women were catered for. [34] It's more likely that boys and girls, whose families could afford it, had private tutoring at home. [34]
Unvalidated
Validated
-- For example, Monogamy had been an Ancient Roman definition of marriage, but Christianity introduced a prohibition in divorce and sexual relations outside of marriage, with the latter to prevent sexual relationships with slaves. [27]. ---
"Critical study of gender in Byzantium has received sustained, if dispersed, attention since the publication of the groundbreaking collection of essays in 1997, Women, Men, and Eunuchs: Gender in Byzantium, edited by Liz James. That publication was preceded by extensive foundational work on “women’s history” (by Alice-Mary Talbot, Angeliki Laiou, and Judith Herrin, among others), which focused largely on identifying evidence of women’s lives in Byzantium and incorporating their stories into existing master narratives...Leonora Neville’s Byzantine Gender builds from existing scholarship, including her own exceptional contributions to this still-emerging subfield." https://repository.brynmawr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1118&context=hart_pubs
Guglielmo Cavallo: The Byzantines Archived 5 June 2022 at the Wayback Machine 1997/ Guglielmo Cavallo. Guglielmo Cavallo (born 18 August 1938 in Carovigno) is an Italian palaeographer and Byzantinist, Emeritus Professor of the Sapienza University of Rome.
https://openlibrary.org/works/OL19696591W/The_Byzantines?edition=ia%3Abyzantines0000unse_o0m1
Paul Stephenson: The Byzantine World Archived 5 June 2022 at the Wayback Machine 20 December 2010. Paul Stephenson is Professor in the Department of History at the University of Durham and a specialist in the early and middle Byzantine periods.
Marcus Louis Rautman: Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire Archived 5 June 2022 at the Wayback Machine 30 Mar 2006. MARCUS RAUTMAN is Professor and Department Chair of the Department of Art History and Archaeology, University of Missouri, Columbia
Jonathan Harris: Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium Archived 5 June 2022 at the Wayback Machine 9 February 2017. Jonathan Harris (historian) Jonathan Harris is professor of the History of Byzantium at Royal Holloway, University of London.
Lynda Garland: Byzantine Women: Varieties of Experience 800–1200. Professor at the University of Queensland. Her research focuses on female images in the Late Antiquity period and Byzantine Society.
Key themes to cover from existing text
The position of women in the Byzantine Empire essentially represents the position of women in ancient Rome transformed by the introduction of Christianity, with certain rights and customs being lost and replaced, while others were allowed to remain. There were individual Byzantine women famed for their educational accomplishments. However, the general view of women's education was that it was sufficient for a girl to learn domestic duties and to study the lives of the Christian saints and memorize psalms, [36] and to learn to read so that she could study Bible scriptures—although literacy in women was sometimes discouraged because it was believed it could encourage vice. [37]
The Roman right to divorce was gradually erased after the introduction of Christianity and replaced with legal separation and annulment. Marriage was regarded as the ideal state for a woman, and only convent life was seen as a legitimate alternative. Within marriage, sexual activity was regarded only as a means of reproduction. Women had the right to appear before court, but her testimony was not regarded as equal to that of a man and could be contradicted based on her sex if put against that of a man. [36]
From the 6th century there was a growing ideal of gender segregation, which dictated that women should wear veils [35] and only be seen in public when attending church, [38] and while the ideal was never fully enforced, it influenced society. The laws of Emperor Justinian I made it legal for a man to divorce his wife for attending public premises such as theatres or public baths without his permission, [39] and Emperor Leo VI banned women from witnessing business contracts with the argument that it caused them to come in contact with men. [36] In Constantinople, upper-class women were increasingly expected to keep to a special women's section (gynaikonitis), [38] and by the 8th century it was described as unacceptable for unmarried daughters to meet unrelated men. [36] While imperial women and their ladies appeared in public alongside men, women and men at the imperial court attended royal banquets separately until the rise of the Komnenos dynasty in the 12th century. [38]
Eastern Roman and later Byzantine women retained the Roman woman's right to inherit, own and manage their property and signs contracts, [38] rights which were far superior to the rights of married women in Medieval Catholic Western Europe, as these rights included both married women as well as unmarried women and widows. [39] Women's legal right to handle their own money made it possible for rich women to engage in business, however women who actively had to find a profession to support themselves normally worked as domestics or in domestic fields such as the food or textile industry. [39] Women could work as medical physicians and attendants of women patients and visitors at hospitals and public baths with government support. [37]
After the introduction of Christianity, women could no longer become priestesses, but it became common for women to found and manage nunneries, which functioned as schools for girls as well as asylums, poor houses, hospitals, prisons and retirement homes for women, and many Byzantine women practised social work as lay sisters and deaconesses. [38]
Roman Citizenship was extended to people with no direct territorial claim to the city of Rome which had enormous significance. [40] In 212, it was extended across the entire empire, affecting two-thirds of its population and fundamentally changing its nature. [41]
By the second century CE, Greek culture had redefined Roman identity.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/43767621
The Constitutio Antoniniana is considered a turning point by some modern historians. It occurred in 212 and is when Caracalla granted citizenship across the entire Empire. Roman citizenship was an innovation of the Roman state, where people with no direct territorial claim to the city of Rome could have it. [42] However, the decision in 212 would affect two-thirds of the Empire's population, fundamentally changing its nature. [43] For example, in 249, Decius required all subjects to make a public sacrifice to the gods for the Empire, which following 212 was unprecedented in scale and marks the progression towards uniform religious practice. [44]
Diocletian's constitutional reforms from 284 reconfigured the reforms by Augustus that created the principate, seen as forming a new state. [45] Constantine's support for Christianity and moving the imperial seat east changed the power structures forever. For example, the formation of the Constantinople Senate gave the East political independence. [45] Theodosius issued a series of edicts essentially banning pagan religion. Pagan festivals and sacrifices were banned, as was access to all pagan temples and places of worship. [46] The last Olympic Games are believed to have been held in 393. [47]
By the second century CE, Hellenic culture had heavily impacted Roman identity. [48] On top of this, the theological debates in the Christian Church increased the importance of the Greek language, making it highly dependent on Hellenic thought. [49] It enabled philosophy like Neoplatonism to loom large on Christian theology. [50] Despite this, Anthony Kaldellis views Christianity as bringing no economic, social, or political changes to the state other than being more deeply integrated into it. [51]
Previous text Mary Beard distinguishes the history of ancient Rome up until 212 to be different to the era that follows, "effectively a new state masquerading under an old name". [52] Anthony Kaldellis says Rome went from an empire to a world and this decision would later underpin the enforcement of uniform religious belief. [44] Diocletian's reforms half a century later are considered to be so far reaching that it formed a new empire. [45]
Constantine, who had moved the imperial seat to the east, favoured Christianity after his conversion in 312; despite a lack of personal interest, he took an active role in theological debates and convened the First Council of Nicaea to address the Arian controversy. [53] Constantine's dynasty fought a lengthy conflict against Sasanid Persia and ended in 363 with the death of his son-in-law Julian, a pagan who futilely attempted to reverse the Christianization of the empire, after a failed expedition. [54] In 391 and 392 Theodosius I issued a series of edicts essentially banning pagan religion. Pagan festivals and sacrifices were banned, as was access to all pagan temples and places of worship. [46] The last Olympic Games are believed to have been held in 393. [47]
Although polytheism had been suppressed by the state since at least the time of Theodosius I in the 4th century, traditional Greco-Roman culture was still influential in the Eastern empire in the 6th century. [55] Hellenistic philosophy began to be gradually amalgamated into newer Christian philosophy. Philosophers such as John Philoponus drew on neoplatonic ideas in addition to Christian thought and empiricism. Because of the active paganism of its professors, Justinian closed down the Neoplatonic Academy in 529. Other schools continued in Constantinople, Antioch and Alexandria, which were the centres of Justinian's empire. [56] Hymns written by Romanos the Melodist marked the development of the Divine Liturgy, while the architects Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles worked to complete the Hagia Sophia, one of the major monuments of Byzantine architectural history. [57] During the 6th and 7th centuries, the empire was struck by a series of epidemics, which devastated the population and contributed to a significant economic decline and a weakening of the empire. [58] Great bathhouses were built in Byzantine centres such as Constantinople and Antioch. [59]
Chapter two addresses the international dimensions of Byzantine slavery: that is, war captives and the slave trade. The two were intimately linked and shaped by relations with the Muslim world. As captivity increasingly involved being enslaved by people of another faith, Rotman detects a growing interest on the part of the state in securing the recognition of captured Chris tians' free status—by placing limits on the trade of core ligionists, but also by upholding the validity of their marriages, and by facilitating their recovery of freedom, whether through the exchange of captives or by placing conditions on those who purchased them (if captives could not repay their purchase price, they did not simply remain slaves, but had to be paid a salary until they could repurchase their freedom
Chapter three Rotman sees a move, with a particular turning-point in the tenth century, toward considering slaves as individuals, both in hagiography and law
Altough the Christian Church did not have an anti-slavery agenda of any description, it insisted on masters' responsibilities, and the relationship between slave and God was gradually privileged over that between slave and earthly master (Alexius I Comnenus thus gave slaves the right to Christian marriage despite masters' worries). Rotman sees a parallel development in laws. Alongside the state's growing interest in controlling private persons' use of their free status (leading to restrictions on penal sla very, self-sale, and the sale of children), it also took on increasing control over unfree status: as with the slave/God relationship, the relationship between slave and state also came to be privileged over that between slave and master. "The evolution of ancient slavery thus appears to be, more than anything, the history of the growth of public power" ((p. 179).
https://www-jstor-org.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/stable/23308155?seq=1
Byzantine law provided that a non-Christian could not hold a Christian as slave as a way to protect the Christianity of the slave.
Slavic and Bulgar regions were most of the slaves MiHAELA L. FLORESCU, French and Linguistics, Cerritos College
The last three chapters are a virtual primer on Byzantine slavery, whose full value cannot be covered in a brief review. Rotman explicates the alteration of the nature of slavery in the Mediterranean world as a result of piracy and the near perpetual Byzantine‐Muslim warfare, especially with the phenomenon of the exchange of captives, while giving great attention to the Mediterranean slave trade. Meanwhile, the Christianization of the Byzantine Empire, especially allowing slaves to have Christian marriages, brought about significant internal changes to the practices of slavery. During this period, Byzantine sources also illustrate a changing view of slaves, who progress from being mere objects to being the central focus of literary attention, especially in hagiography. https://doi-org.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/10.1111/j.1540-6563.2011.00301_65.x
Underpinning Rotman's analysis is a dissatisfaction with modern notions of freedom and with their Roman republican antecedents. The author steps away from the polar opposition of freedom and slavery as conceived through the varied analytical frameworks of Marx, Henri Wallon, Moses Finley, and others and posits a more complex conception of unfreedom, essential, in his mind, to the analysis of autocratic societies (p. 18).
https://www-jstor-org.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/stable/41105571?seq=2
Against this background, and contrary to Lenski’s assertion, the Byzantine innovation of the 8th century cannot be overestimated. This innovation lay not in attributing a free status to the captives returning to the Empire, but in considering them free Byzantines while in captivity. Contrary to Lenski’s assertion, I did show (pp. 30-31) that the innovation of the Ekloga drew on the previous constitution of Honorius (CJ 8.50.20 = CTh 5.7.2), which determined a period of five years during which the redeemer will pay the captive a wage.
https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2010/2010.05.14/ https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2010/2010.07.02
The institution of slavery would transition to what Youval Rotman calls different degrees of unfreedom.
[60] There were about 3 million enslaved people (or 15% of the population) around the time of the Diocletian reforms.
[17] Previous slave professions became prestigious free-market roles like tutors. Fiscal arrangements by the state created the coloni, tenants bound to the land, which emerged as a new legal category between free and slave.{{sfnm|Kaldellis|2023|1p=39} A dramatic change in the 726
Ekloga was that battle captives were considered freed people while in captivity, considered part of a series of progressions since the constitution of Honorius.
[61]
[62] Emperors promoted cultural assimilation of conquered people, which included releasing of enslaved people.
[63] Christianity had no direct impact on slavery.
[17] Still, it did influence it due to state policies prohibiting enslaved Christians and trade limits on Christians.
[64] Despite all this, slavery ultimately would persist, though prices would remain constant.
[65]
[17]
The institution of slavery would transition, to what Youval Rotman calls different degrees of unfreedom.There were about 3 million slaves (or 15% of the population) around the time of the Diocletian reforms. [17] Previous slave professions became prestigious free market roles like tutors; and fiscal arrangements by the state created the coloni, tenants bound to the land, which emerged as a new legal category between free and slave. [14] An innovation in the Ekloga of 726 was that war captives were considered free people while in captivity, but this has origins from the constitution of Honorius. [61] Emperors promoted cultural assimilation of conquered people, which included freeing of slaves. [63] Christianity had no direct agenda on slavery, but it did influence it due to state policies prohibiting Christian slaves and trade limits on Christians [66] Despite all this, slavery ultimately would still persist and prices would remain constant. [67] [17]
Under the influence of Christianity, views of slavery shifted: by the 10th century slaves were viewed as potential citizens (the slave as a subject), rather than property or
chattel (the slave as an object).
[68] Slavery was also seen as "an evil contrary to nature, created by man's selfishness", although it remained legal.
[69]
The following are a list of problems with the Early History section:
/info/en/?search=Byzantine_Empire#Early_history
Background
Issues
Christianisation and partition of the empire
The following are sources in this section
Loss of the Western Roman Empire
The following are sources in this section
Cameron 2009, p. 52
Burns 1991, pp. 65, 76–77, 86–87
Lenski 1999, pp. 428–429.
Grierson 1999, p. 17.
Justinian dynasty
The rise of Justinian I
Renovatio imperii and the wars of Justinian
Transition into an eastern Christian empire
Decline of the Justinian dynasty
Arab invasions and shrinking borders
Early Heraclian dynasty
First Arab siege of Constantinople (674–678) and the theme system
Late Heraclian dynasty
Second Arab siege of Constantinople (717–718) and the Isaurian dynasty
Religious dispute over iconoclasm
Macedonian dynasty and resurgence (867–1025)
Wars against the Abbasids
Wars against the Bulgarian Empire
Relations with the Kievan Rus'
Campaigns in the Caucasus
Apex
Split between Orthodoxy and Catholicism (1054)
Crisis and fragmentation
Komnenian dynasty and the Crusades
Alexios I and the First Crusade
John II, Manuel I and the Second Crusade
12th-century Renaissance
Decline and disintegration
Angelid dynasty
Fourth Crusade and aftermath
Fall
Rise of the Ottomans and fall of Constantinople
Political aftermath
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