The point at which the Solar System ends can be defined by two by two separate forces—the solar wind and the Sun's gravity:
The Sun's sphere of influence depends on which of its property is considered to define the outer boundary of the Solar System.
Tunguska event | |
---|---|
Event | Explosion in forest area (10–15 Mtons TNT) |
Time | 30 June 1908 |
Place | Podkamennaya Tunguska River in Siberia, Russian Empire |
Effects | Flattening 2,000 km2 (770 sq mi) of forest |
Damage | Mostly material damages to trees |
Cause | Probable air burst of small asteroid or comet |
Coordinates | 60°55′N 101°57′E / 60.917°N 101.950°E |
The Tunguska event was a large explosion of a meteor near the Stony Tunguska River in what is now Krasnoyarsk Krai, a sparsely populated region of the Eastern Siberian Taiga, Russia. The event occured in the morning of June 30, 1908 ( N.S.). [3] [4]
It flattened 2,000 km2 (770 sq mi) of forest and caused no known casualties.
It is classified as an impact event, even though no impact crater has been found and the meteor is believed to have burst in mid-air at an altitude of 5 to 10 kilometres (3 to 6 miles) rather than hit the surface of the Earth. [5]
Different studies have yielded varying estimates of the superbolide's size, on the order of 60 to 190 metres (197 to 623 feet), depending on whether the meteor was a comet or a denser asteroid. [6] It is the largest impact event on Earth in recorded history.
Since the 1908 event, there have been an estimated 1,000 scholarly papers (mainly in Russian) published on the Tunguska explosion. Many scientists have participated in Tunguska studies: the best known are Leonid Kulik, Yevgeny Krinov, Kirill Florensky, Nikolai Vladimirovich Vasiliev, and Wilhelm Fast. In 2013, a team of researchers led by Victor Kvasnytsya of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine published analysis results of micro-samples from a peat bog near the center of the affected area showing fragments that may be of meteoritic origin. [7] [8]
Estimates of the energy of the air burst range from 30 megatons of TNT (130 PJ) to 10 and 15 megatons of TNT (42 and 63 PJ), [9] depending on the exact height of burst estimated when the scaling-laws from the effects of nuclear weapons are employed. [9] [10] While more modern supercomputer calculations that include the effect of the object's momentum estimate that the airburst had an energy range from 3 to 5 megatons of TNT (13 to 21 PJ), and that simply more of this energy was focused downward than would be the case from a nuclear explosion. [10]
Using the 15 megaton nuclear explosion derived estimate is an energy about 1,000 times greater than that of the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima, Japan; roughly equal to that of the United States' Castle Bravo ground-based thermonuclear test detonation on March 1, 1954; and about two-fifths that of the Soviet Union's later Tsar Bomba (the largest nuclear weapon ever detonated). [11]
It is estimated that the Tunguska explosion knocked down some 80 million trees over an area of 2,150 square kilometres (830 sq mi), and that the shock wave from the blast would have measured 5.0 on the Richter scale. An explosion of this magnitude would be capable of destroying a large metropolitan area, [12] but due to the remoteness of the location, no fatalities were documented. This event has helped to spark discussion of asteroid impact avoidance.
The Tunguska event was a large explosion, caused by a meteor, which occurred near the Stony Tunguska River in what is now Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia, in the morning of June 30, 1908 ( N.S.). [3] [4] The explosion over the sparsely populated Eastern Siberian Taiga flattened 2,000 km2 (770 sq mi) of forest and caused no known casualties. It is classified as an impact event, even though no impact crater has been found and the meteor is believed to have burst in mid-air at an altitude of 5 to 10 kilometres (3 to 6 miles) rather than hit the surface of the Earth. [13] Different studies have yielded varying estimates of the superbolide's size, on the order of 60 to 190 metres (197 to 623 feet), depending on whether the meteor was a comet or a denser asteroid. [14] It is the largest impact event on Earth in recorded history.
Since the 1908 event, there have been an estimated 1,000 scholarly papers (mainly in Russian) published on the Tunguska explosion. Many scientists have participated in Tunguska studies: the best known are Leonid Kulik, Yevgeny Krinov, Kirill Florensky, Nikolai Vladimirovich Vasiliev, and Wilhelm Fast. In 2013, a team of researchers led by Victor Kvasnytsya of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine published analysis results of micro-samples from a peat bog near the center of the affected area showing fragments that may be of meteoritic origin. [15] [16]
Estimates of the energy of the air burst range from 30 megatons of TNT (130 PJ) to 10 and 15 megatons of TNT (42 and 63 PJ), [9] depending on the exact height of burst estimated when the scaling-laws from the effects of nuclear weapons are employed. [9] [10] While more modern supercomputer calculations that include the effect of the object's momentum estimate that the airburst had an energy range from 3 to 5 megatons of TNT (13 to 21 PJ), and that simply more of this energy was focused downward than would be the case from a nuclear explosion. [10]
Using the 15 megaton nuclear explosion derived estimate is an energy about 1,000 times greater than that of the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima, Japan; roughly equal to that of the United States' Castle Bravo ground-based thermonuclear test detonation on March 1, 1954; and about two-fifths that of the Soviet Union's later Tsar Bomba (the largest nuclear weapon ever detonated). [17]
It is estimated that the Tunguska explosion knocked down some 80 million trees over an area of 2,150 square kilometres (830 sq mi), and that the shock wave from the blast would have measured 5.0 on the Richter scale. An explosion of this magnitude would be capable of destroying a large metropolitan area, [18] but due to the remoteness of the location, no fatalities were documented. This event has helped to spark discussion of asteroid impact avoidance.
Though generally described as several separate oceans, these waters comprise one global, interconnected body of salt water sometimes referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean. [19] [20] This concept of a continuous body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography. [21]
The major oceanic divisions – listed below in descending order of area and volume – are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos, and other criteria. [22] [23] [24]
Rank (by area) | Ocean | Location | Area (km2) (%) |
Volume (km3) (%) |
Avg. depth (m) |
Coastline (km) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Pacific Ocean | Separates Asia and Oceania from the Americas [25][NB] | 168,723,000 46.6 |
669,880,000 50.1 |
3,970 | 135,663 |
2 | Atlantic Ocean | Separates the Americas from Eurasia and Africa [26] | 85,133,000 23.5 |
310,410,900 23.3 |
3,646 | 111,866 |
3 | Indian Ocean | Washes upon southern Asia and separates Africa and Australia [27] | 70,560,000 19.5 |
264,000,000 19.8 |
3,741 | 66,526 |
4 | Southern Ocean | Sometimes considered an extension of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans, [28] [29] which encircles Antarctica | 21,960,000 6.1 |
71,800,000 5.4 |
3,270 | 17,968 |
5 | Arctic Ocean | Sometimes considered a sea or estuary of the Atlantic, [30] [31] which covers much of the Arctic and washes upon northern North America and Eurasia [32] | 15,558,000 4.3 |
18,750,000 1.4 |
1,205 | 45,389 |
Total – World Ocean | 361,900,000 100 |
1.335×10 9 100 |
3,688 | 377,412 [33] |
NB: Volume, area, and average depth figures include NOAA ETOPO1 figures for marginal South China Sea.
Oceans are fringed by smaller, adjoining bodies of water such as seas, gulfs, bays, bights, and straits.
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The oceans occupy about 3.35×108 km2 of area. There are 377412 km of oceanic coastlines in the world.
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verification. (June 2010) |
(test) Astronomical objects or celestial objects are naturally occurring physical entities, associations or structures that current science has demonstrated to exist in the observable universe. [2] The term astronomical object is sometimes used interchangeably with astronomical body. Typically, an astronomical (celestial) body refers to a single, cohesive structure that is bound together by gravity (and sometimes by electromagnetism). Examples include the asteroids, moons, planets and the stars. Astronomical objects are gravitationally bound structures that are associated with a position in space, but may consist of multiple independent astronomical bodies or objects. These objects range from single planets to star clusters, nebulae or entire galaxies. A comet may be described as a body, in reference to the frozen nucleus of ice and dust, or as an object, when describing the nucleus with its diffuse coma and tail.
The universe can be viewed as having a hierarchical structure. [3] At the largest scales, the fundamental component of assembly is the galaxy, which are assembled out of dwarf galaxies. The galaxies are organized into groups and clusters, often within larger superclusters, that are strung along great filaments between nearly empty voids, forming a web that spans the observable universe. [4] Galaxies and dwarf galaxies have a variety of morphologies, with the shapes determined by their formation and evolutionary histories, including interaction with other galaxies. [5] Depending on the category, a galaxy may have one or more distinct features, such as spiral arms, a halo and a nucleus. At the core, most galaxies have a supermassive black hole, which may result in an active galactic nucleus. Galaxies can also have satellites in the form of dwarf galaxies and globular clusters.
The constituents of a galaxy are formed out of gaseous matter that assembles through gravitational self-attraction in a hierarchical manner. At this level, the resulting fundamental components are the stars, which are typically assembled in clusters from the various condensing nebulae. [7] The great variety of stellar forms are determined almost entirely by the mass, composition and evolutionary state of these stars. Stars may be found in multi-star systems that orbit about each other in a hierarchical organization. A planetary system and various minor objects such as asteroids, comets and debris, can form in a hierarchical process of accretion from the protoplanetary disks that surrounds newly formed stars.
The various distinctive types of stars are shown by the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram (H–R diagram)—a plot of absolute stellar luminosity versus surface temperature. Each star follows an evolutionary track across this diagram. If this track takes the star through a region containing an intrinsic variable type, then its physical properties can cause it to become a variable star. An example of this is the instability strip, a region of the H-R diagram that includes Delta Scuti, RR Lyrae and Cepheid variables. [8] Depending on the initial mass of the star and the presence or absence of a companion, a star may spend the last part of its life as a compact object; either a white dwarf, neutron star, or black hole.
Images are representative (made by hand), not simulated.
Primary objectives (required) |
– Characterize the global geology and morphology of Pluto and Charon |
– Map chemical compositions of Pluto and Charon surfaces |
– Characterize the neutral (non- ionized) atmosphere of Pluto and its escape rate |
Secondary objectives (expected) |
– Characterize the time variability of Pluto's surface and atmosphere |
– Image select Pluto and Charon areas in stereo |
– Map the terminators (day/night border) of Pluto and Charon with high resolution |
– Map the chemical compositions of select Pluto and Charon areas with high resolution |
– Characterize Pluto's ionosphere (upper layer of the atmosphere) and its interaction with the solar wind |
– Search for neutral species such as H2, hydrocarbons, HCN and other nitriles in the atmosphere |
– Search for any Charon atmosphere |
– Determine bolometric Bond albedos for Pluto and Charon |
– Map surface temperatures of Pluto and Charon |
– Map any additional surfaces of outermost moons: Nix, Hydra, Kerberos, and Styx |
Tertiary objectives (desired) |
– Characterize the energetic particle environment at Pluto and Charon |
– Refine bulk parameters (radii, masses) and orbits of Pluto and Charon |
– Search for additional moons and any rings |
Since the 1990s, a total of 13 minor planets – currently all of them are asteroids and dwarf planets – have been visited by space probes. Note that moons (not directly orbiting the Sun), comets and planets are not minor planets and thus are not included in the table below.
In addition to the listed objects, two asteroids have been imaged by spacecraft at distances too large to resolve features (over 100,000 km), and are hence not considered as "visited". Asteroid 132524 APL was imaged by New Horizons in 2006 at a distance of 101,867 km, and 2685 Masursky by Cassini in 2000 at a distance of 1,600,000 km. The Hubble Space Telescope, a spacecraft in Earth orbit, has imaged several large asteroids, including 2 Pallas and 3 Juno.
Minor planet | Space probe | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Name | Image | Dimensions in km(a) |
Discovery year |
Name | Visiting year |
Closest approach | Remarks | |
in km | in radii(b) | |||||||
1 Ceres | 952 | 1801 | Dawn | 2015–present | 200 approx.
(planned) |
0.42 | first "close up" picture of Ceres taken in December 2014; probe entered orbit in March 2015; first dwarf planet visited by a spacecraft, largest asteroid visited by a spacecraft | |
4 Vesta | 529 | 1807 | Dawn | 2011–2012 | 200 approx.
|
0.76 | space probe broke orbit on 5 September 2012 and headed to Ceres; first " big four" asteroid visited by a spacecraft, largest asteroid visited by a spacecraft at the time | |
21 Lutetia | 120×100×80 | 1852 | Rosetta | 2010 | 3,162 | 64.9 | flyby on 10 July 2010; largest asteroid visited by a spacecraft at the time | |
243 Ida | 56×24×21 | 1884 | Galileo | 1993 | 2,390 | 152 | flyby; discovered Dactyl; first asteroid with a moon visited by a spacecraft, largest asteroid visited by spacecraft at the time | |
253 Mathilde | 66×48×46 | 1885 | NEAR Shoemaker | 1997 | 1,212 | 49.5 | flyby; largest asteroid visited by a spacecraft at the time | |
433 Eros | 13×13×33 | 1898 | NEAR Shoemaker | 1998–2001 | 0 | 0 | 1998 flyby; 2000 orbited (first asteroid studied from orbit); 2001 landing; first asteroid landing, first asteroid orbited by a spacecraft, first near-Earth asteroid (NEA) visited by a spacecraft | |
951 Gaspra | 18.2×10.5×8.9 | 1916 | Galileo | 1991 | 1,600 | 262 | flyby; first asteroid visited by a spacecraft | |
2867 Šteins | 4.6 | 1969 | Rosetta | 2008 | 800 | 302 | flyby; first asteroid visited by the ESA | |
4179 Toutatis | 4.5×~2 | 1934 | Chang'e 2 | 2012 | 3.2 | 0.70 | flyby [9]; closest asteroid flyby, first asteroid visited by China | |
5535 Annefrank | 4.0 | 1942 | Stardust | 2002 | 3,079 | 1230 | flyby | |
9969 Braille | 2.2×0.6 | 1992 | Deep Space 1 | 1999 | 26 | 12.7 | flyby; followed by flyby of Comet Borrelly; failure, missed it during flyby | |
25143 Itokawa | 0.5×0.3×0.2 | 1998 | Hayabusa | 2005 | 0 | 0 | landed; returned dust samples to Earth; first asteroid with returned samples, smallest asteroid visited by a spacecraft, first asteroid visited by a non-NASA spacecraft | |
134340 Pluto | 2,344 | 1930 | New Horizons | 2015 | 12,500 | 10.5 | flyby; first trans-Neptunian object visited | |
Notes: a A minor planet's dimensions may be described by x, y, and z axes instead of an (average) diameter due to its non-spherical, irregular shape. b Closest approach given in multiples of the minor planet's mean radius · Default order of list: by the minor planet's designation, ascending. |
alternative layout for List of minor planets and comets visited by spacecraft, section List of comets visited by spacecraft
Commet | Space probe | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Name | Image | Dimensions in km(a) |
Discovery year |
Name | Visiting year |
Closest approach | Remarks | |
in km | in radii(b) | |||||||
Giacobini–Zinner | 2 | 1900 | ICE | 1985 | 7,800 | 7,800 | flyby | |
Halley | 15×9 | Known since antiquity |
Vega 1 | 1986 | 8,889 | 1,620 | flyby | |
Vega 2 | 1986 | 8,030 | 1,460 | flyby | ||||
Suisei | 1986 | 151,000 | 27,450 | distant flyby | ||||
Giotto | 1986 | 596 | 108 | flyby | ||||
Grigg–Skjellerup | 2.6 | 1902 | Giotto | 1992 | 200 | 154 | flyby | |
Borrelly | 8×4×4 | 1904 | Deep Space 1 | 2001 | 2,171 | 814 | flyby; closest approach in September 2001 when probe entered the comet's coma [10] | |
Wild 2 | 5.5×4.0×3.3 | 1978 | Stardust | 2004 | 240 | 113 | flyby; returned samples to Earth; also see: sample return mission | |
Tempel 1 | 7.6×4.9 | 1867 | Deep Impact | 2005 | 0 | 0 | flyby; blasted a crater using an impactor | |
Stardust | 2011 | 181 | 57.9 | flyby; imaged the crater created by Deep Impact | ||||
Hartley 2 | 1.4 | 1986 |
EPOXI (was Deep Impact) |
2010 | 700 | 1,000 | flyby; smallest comet visited | |
Churyumov–Gerasimenko | 4.1×3.3×1.8 | 1969 | Rosetta | 2014 | 6 | 3.91 5.37 |
in orbit as of 2015; OSIRIS captured image with 11 cm/px-resolution in Spring 2015 [11] | |
Philae (Rosetta's lander) |
2014 | 0 | 0 | landed in November 2014 | ||||
Notes: (a) Due to a non-spherical, irregular shape, a comet's x, y, and z axes instead of an (average) diameter are often used to describe its dimensions. (b) Closest approach given in multiples of the comet's (average mean) radius · List ordered in descending order of a comet's first visit |
The primary mirrors of the ESO 8-m class Very Large Telescopes are actively supported, thin Zerodur menisci, 8-.2-m diameter. The mirror blanks are produced by SCHOTT; the optical figuring, manufacturing and assembling of interfaces and auxiliary equipment are done by REOSC. Three mirror blanks have already been delivered by SCHOTT to REOSC. In November 1995 the project met a critical and very successful milestone, with the completion and testing of the first finished VLT primary mirror at REOSC. Specifications, manufacturing and above all testing methodology will be addressed, and the final results will be detailed. Optical performance at telescope level will be assessed as well.
The 8.2-m Zerodur primary mirrors (figure 1) of the ESO Very Large Telescope are 175 mm thick and their shape is actively controlled (active optics) by means of 150 axial force actuators,the necessary active corrections being obtained from wavefront sensors located off-axis on the image surface. The 23-tons mirror blanks (figure 2) are procured from SCHOTT Glaswerke and the optical figuring from REOSC (subsidiary of Groupe SFIM), together with the interfaces with the mirror cell and auxiliary equipment such as transport containers. REOSC responsibility starts at the delivery of the mirror blanks at SCHOTT premises and ends at the delivery of the finished mirrors ex works. Dedicated facilities were built by the two companies to execute their respective contracts.
Procurement of the mirror blanks started in 1988with the signature of the SCHOTT contract. The first mirror blank was delivered to REOSC in July 1993, the second in November 1994 and the third one in September 1995. The delivery of the last mirror blank is scheduled for September 1996.
The contract with REOSC for the optical figuring was formalized in 1989. Polishing of two mirrors has been completed;the first one was verified in October-November 1995 and the second is undergoing final tests at the time of redaction of this article.After active correction these two first mirrors are diffraction-limited at Ha wavelength.
The successful production of these mirrors represents a major breakthrough not only in terms of manufacturing processes but also in terms of metrology. Indeed the accurate and reliablemeasurement of a thin, flexible 50m2 optical surface represents a serious challenge.
After reviewing the specifications of the primary mirrors, manufacturing and testing plans will be presented andthe results obtained with three blanks and two finished mirrors will be detailed.
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Rosetta flew just 3.7 miles (6 kilometers) from Comet 67P's surface, resulting in a resolution of 4.3 inches (11 centimeters) per pixel [for OSIRIS].
<0.1, n/a 0.1–1 1–10 10–50 | 50–100 100–150 150–200 200–300 | 300–450 >450 |
Forecast by | PV installations |
---|---|
IEA1 | 38 GW |
SPE | 51 GW |
DB | 54 GW |
MC | 55 GW |
BNEF | 55 GW |
IHS | 57 GW |
Average | 54.2 GW |
1 excluding outdated IEA basecase |
Year | 2013-Edition | diff | 2014-Edition |
---|---|---|---|
2013 | 30 GW | +9 | 39 GW |
2014 | 30 GW | +9 | 39 GW |
2015 | 33 GW | +5 | 38 GW |
2016 | 36 GW | +3 | 39 GW |
2017 | 38 GW | -2 | 36 GW |
2018 | 40 GW | -3 | 37 GW |
2019 | n.a. | n.a. | 38 GW |
2020 | n.a. | n.a. | 39 GW |
Sources and desc |
Based on this version, as June, 10 in article Solar energy
Region | North America | Latin America and Caribbean | Western Europe | Central and Eastern Europe | Former Soviet Union | Middle East and North Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | Pacific Asia | South Asia | Centrally planned Asia | Pacific OECD |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Minimum | 181.1 | 112.6 | 25.1 | 4.5 | 199.3 | 412.4 | 371.9 | 41.0 | 38.8 | 115.5 | 72.6 |
Maximum | 7,410 | 3,385 | 914 | 154 | 8,655 | 11,060 | 9,528 | 994 | 1,339 | 4,135 | 2,263 |
Note:
Quantitative relation of global solar potential vs. primary energy consumption:
Source: According to United Nations Development Programme World Energy Assessment (2000) [6] |
Region | Minimum | Maximum | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
North America | 181.1 | 7410 | ||
Latin America and Caribbean | 112.6 | 3385 | ||
Western Europe | 25.1 | 914 | ||
Central and Eastern Europe | 4.5 | 154 | ||
Former Soviet Union | 199.3 | 8655 | ||
Middle East and North Africa | 412.4 | 11060 | ||
Sub-Saharan Africa | 371.9 | 9,528 | ||
Pacific Asia | 41.0 | 994 | ||
South Asia | 38.8 | 1339 | ||
Centrally planned Asia | 115.5 | 4135 | ||
Pacific OECD | 72.6 | 2263 | ||
Total | 1575.0 | 49,837 | ||
Ratio to current primary energy consumption (402 exajoules) | 3.9 | 124 | ||
Ratio to projected primary energy consumption in 2050 (590 - 1,050 exajoules) | 2.7-1.5 | 84-47 | ||
Ratio to the projected primary energy consumption in 2100 (880-1900 exajoules) | 1.8-0.8 | 57-26 | ||
Data reflects assumptions of annual clear sky irradiance, annual average sky clearance, and available land area. All figures given in Exajoules According to United Nations Development Programme World Energy Assessment (2000) [6] |
[ http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/KeyWorld2014.pdf IEA- Key World Energy Statistics 2014, p.19 Remarks: % of Country hydro (top-ten in total producers) domestic electricity generation. Note: only top ten producers are considered for %-generation of domestic electricity. IEA could have (should have) merged the two data sets into one table (it's rather misleading otherwise without explicit note. Paraguay, Costa Rica, Austria and Switzerland would definitely rank in the %-chart).
|
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Data: IEA - Key World Energy Statistics 2014, p.19 report, March 2014: 19 |
Year | 1990 | 1991 | 1992 | 1993 | 1994 | 1995 | 1996 | 1997 | 1998 | 1999 |
%-share | 1.3% | 1.3% | 1.4% | 1.6% | 1.8% | 1.9% | 1.8% | 2.4% | 2.6% | 2.8% |
Year | 2000 | 2001 | 2002 | 2003 | 2004 | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 |
%-share | 2.9 | 2.9 | 3.2 | 3.8 | 4.5 | 5.3 | 6.3 | 7.9 | 8.0 | 8.9 |
Year | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 |
%-share | 9.9 | 10.8 | 10.3 | 10.4 | 11.1 | – | – | – | – | – |
Timeline of the New Horizons mission | |||
---|---|---|---|
Date | Event | Description | References |
June 8, 2001 | New Horizons selected by NASA. | After a three-month concept study before submission of the proposal, two design teams were competing: POSSE (Pluto and Outer Solar System Explorer) and New Horizons. | [9] |
June 13, 2005 | Spacecraft departed Applied Physics Laboratory for final testing. | Spacecraft undergoes final testing at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC). | [10] |
September 24, 2005 | Spacecraft shipped to Cape Canaveral | It was moved through Andrews Air Force Base aboard a C-17 Globemaster III cargo aircraft. | [11] |
December 17, 2005 | Spacecraft ready for in rocket positioning | Transported from Hazardous Servicing Facility to Vertical Integration Facility at Space Launch Complex 41. | [ citation needed] |
January 11, 2006 | Primary launch window opened | The launch was delayed for further testing. | [ citation needed] |
January 16, 2006 | Rocket moved onto launch pad | Atlas V launcher, serial number AV-010, rolled out onto pad. | [ citation needed] |
January 17, 2006 | Launch delayed | First day launch attempts scrubbed because of unacceptable weather conditions (high winds). | [12] [13] |
January 18, 2006 | Launch delayed again | Second launch attempt scrubbed because of morning power outage at the Applied Physics Laboratory. | [ citation needed] |
January 19, 2006 | Successful launch at 14:00 EST (19:00 UTC) | The spacecraft was successfully launched after brief delay due to cloud cover. | [14] [15] |
April 7, 2006 | Passes Mars | The probe passed Mars: 1.7 AU from Earth. | [16] [17] |
June 13, 2006 | Flyby of asteroid 132524 APL | The probe passed closest to the asteroid 132524 APL in the Belt at about 101,867 km at 04:05 UTC. Pictures were taken. | [18] |
November 28, 2006 | First image of Pluto | The image of Pluto was taken from a great distance. | [19] |
January 10, 2007 | Navigation exercise near Jupiter | Long-distance observations of Jupiter's outer moon Callirrhoe as a navigation exercise. | [20] |
February 28, 2007 | Jupiter flyby | Closest approach occurred at 05:43:40 UTC at 2.305 million km, 21.219 km/s. | [21] |
June 8, 2008 | Passing of Saturn's orbit | The probe passed Saturn's orbit: 9.5 AU from Earth. | [21] [22] |
December 29, 2009 | The probe became closer to Pluto than to Earth | Pluto was then 32.7 AU from Earth, and the probe was 16.4 AU from Earth | [23] [24] [25] |
February 25, 2010 | Half mission distance reached | Half the travel distance of 2.38×109 kilometers (1,480,000,000 mi) was completed. | [26] |
March 18, 2011 | The probe passed Uranus's orbit | This is the fourth planetary orbit the spacecraft crossed since its start. New Horizons reached Uranus's orbit at 22:00 GMT. | [27] [28] |
December 2, 2011 | New Horizons drew closer to Pluto than any other spacecraft has ever been. | Previously, Voyager 1 held the record for the closest approach. (~10.58 AU) | [29] |
February 11, 2012 | New Horizons was 10 AU from Pluto. | Happened at around 4:55 UTC. | [30] |
July 1, 2013 | New Horizons captures its first image of Charon | Charon is clearly separated from Pluto using the Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI). | [31] [32] |
October 25, 2013 | New Horizons was 5 AU from Pluto. | [30] [33] | |
July 20, 2014 | Photos of Pluto and Charon | Images obtained showing both bodies orbiting each other, distance 2.8 AU. | [34] |
August 25, 2014 | The probe passed Neptune's orbit | This was the fifth planetary orbit crossed. | [35] |
December 7, 2014 | New Horizons awoke from hibernation. | NASA's Deep Sky Network station at Tidbinbilla, Australia received a signal confirming that it successfully awoke from hibernation. | [36] [37] |
Jan 2015 | Observation of Kuiper belt object VNH0004 | Distant observations from a distance of roughly 75 million km (~0.5 AU) | [38] |
January 15, 2015 | New Horizons is now close enough to Pluto and begins observing the system | [39] [40] | |
March 10–11, 2015 | New Horizons was 1 AU from Pluto. | [41] | |
March 20, 2015 | NASA invited general public to suggest names to surface features that will be discovered on Pluto and Charon | [42] | |
May 15, 2015 | Better than Hubble | Images exceed best Hubble Space Telescope resolution. | [43] |
July 14, 2015 | Flyby of Pluto, Charon, Hydra, Nix, Kerberos and Styx | Flyby of Pluto around 11:47 UTC at 13,695 km, 13.78 km/s. Pluto is 32.9 AU from Sun. Flyby of Charon around 12:01 UTC at 29,473 km, 13.87 km/s. | [21] |
2016–20 | Possible flyby of one or more Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) | The probe will perform flybys of other KBOs, if any are in the spacecraft's trajectory. | [44] |
January 2019 | Possible flyby of 1110113Y | 1110113Y is currently the most possible known target in the Kuiper belt. | |
2026 | Expected end of the mission | [45] | |
2038 | New Horizons will be 100 AU from the Sun. | If still functioning, the probe will explore the outer heliosphere. | [46] |
Photovoltaic Barometer Report - PV Capacity in the European Union in 2014 [47]: 7–10 | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Country | Added 2014 (MW) | Total 2014 (MW) | Generation 2014 | ||||||
off- grid |
on- grid |
Capacity | off- grid |
on- grid |
Capacity | Watt per capita |
in GWh |
in % | |
Austria | – | 140.0 | 140.0 | 4.5 | 766.0 | 770.5 | 90.6 | 766.0 | – |
Belgium | – | 65.2 | 65.2 | 0.1 | 3,105.2 | 3,105.3 | 277.2 | 2,768.0 | – |
Bulgaria | – | 1.3 | 1.3 | 0.7 | 1,019.7 | 1,020.4 | 140.8 | 1,244.5 | – |
Croatia | 0.2 | 14.0 | 14.2 | 0.7 | 33.5 | 34.2 | 8.1 | 35.3 | – |
Cyprus | 0.2 | 29.7 | 30.0 | 1.1 | 63.6 | 64.8 | 75.5 | 104.0 | – |
Czech Republic | – | – | – | 0.4 | 2,060.6 | 2,061.0 | 196.1 | 2,121.7 | – |
Denmark | 0.1 | 29.0 | 29.1 | 1.5 | 600.0 | 601.5 | 106.9 | 557.0 | – |
Estonia | – | – | – | 0.1 | – | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.6 | – |
Finland | – | – | – | 10.0 | 0.2 | 10.2 | 1.9 | 5.9 | – |
France | 0.1 | 974.9 | 975.0 | 10.8 | 5,589.0 | 4,697.6 | 87.6 | 5,500.0 | – |
Germany | – | 1,899.0 | 1,899.0 | 65.0 | 38,236.0 | 38,301.0 | 474.1 | 34,930.0 | – |
Greece | – | 16.9 | 16.9 | 7.0 | 2,595.8 | 2,602.8 | 236.8 | 3,856.0 | – |
Hungary | 0.1 | 3.1 | 3.2 | 0.7 | 37.5 | 38.2 | 3.9 | 26.8 | – |
Ireland | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 0.9 | 0.2 | 1.1 | 0.2 | 0.7 | – |
Italy | 1.0 | 384.0 | 385.0 | 13.0 | 18,437.0 | 18,450.0 | 303.5 | 23,299.0 | – |
Latvia | – | – | – | – | 1.5 | 1.5 | 0.8 | 0.0 | – |
Lithuania | – | – | – | 0.1 | 68.0 | 68.1 | 23.1 | 73.0 | – |
Luxembourg | – | 15.0 | 15.0 | – | 110.0 | 110.0 | 200.1 | 120.0 | – |
Malta | – | 26.0 | 26.0 | – | 54.2 | 54.2 | 127.5 | 57.8 | – |
Netherlands | – | 361.0 | 361.0 | 5.0 | 1,095.0 | 1,100.0 | 65.4 | 800.0 | – |
Poland | 0.5 | 19.7 | 20.2 | 2.9 | 21.5 | 24.4 | 0.6 | 19.2 | – |
Portugal | 1.2 | 115.0 | 116.2 | 5.0 | 414.0 | 419.0 | 40.2 | 631.0 | – |
Romania | – | 270.5 | 270.5 | – | 1,292.6 | 1,292.6 | 64.8 | 1,355.2 | – |
Slovakia | – | 2.0 | 2.0 | 0.1 | 590.0 | 590.1 | 109.0 | 590.0 | – |
Slovenia | – | 7.7 | 7.7 | 0.1 | 255.9 | 256.0 | 124.2 | 244.6 | – |
Spain | 0.3 | 21.0 | 21.3 | 25.5 | 4,761.8 | 4,787.3 | 102.7 | 8,211.0 | – |
Sweden | 1.1 | 35.1 | 36.2 | 9.5 | 69.9 | 79.4 | 8.2 | 71.5 | – |
United Kingdom | – | 2,448.0 | 2,448.0 | 2.3 | 5,228.0 | 5,230.3 | 81.3 | 3,931.0 | – |
European Union | 4.9 | 6,878.4 | 6,883.3 | 167.1 | 86,506.8 | 86,673.9 | 171.5 | 91,319.7 | – |
Country | off- grid |
on- grid |
Capacity | off- grid |
on- grid |
Capacity | Watt per capita |
in GWh |
in % |
Added 2014 (MW) | Total 2014 (MW) | Generation 2014 |
Country | Windpower Production | % of World Total |
---|---|---|
United States | 140.9 | 26.4 |
China | 118.1 | 22.1 |
Spain | 49.1 | 9.2 |
Germany | 46.0 | 8.6 |
India | 30.0 | 5.6 |
United Kingdom | 19.6 | 3.7 |
France | 14.9 | 2.8 |
Italy | 13.4 | 2.5 |
Canada | 11.8 | 2.2 |
Denmark | 10.3 | 1.9 |
( rest of world) | 80.2 | 15.0 |
World Total | 534.3 TWh | 100% |
Source:Observ'ER – Electricity Production From Wind Sources [49] |
UDS/W | 1000 | 1100 | 1200 | 1300 | 1400 | 1500 | 1600 | 1700 | 1800 | 1900 | 2000 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
$1.00 | $0.10 | $0.09 | $0.08 | $0.08 | $0.07 | $0.07 | $0.06 | $0.06 | $0.06 | $0.05 | $0.05 |
$1.20 | $0.12 | $0.10 | $0.10 | $0.09 | $0.08 | $0.08 | $0.07 | $0.07 | $0.06 | $0.06 | $0.06 |
$1.40 | $0.13 | $0.12 | $0.11 | $0.10 | $0.09 | $0.09 | $0.08 | $0.08 | $0.07 | $0.07 | $0.07 |
$1.60 | $0.15 | $0.13 | $0.12 | $0.11 | $0.10 | $0.10 | $0.09 | $0.09 | $0.08 | $0.08 | $0.07 |
$1.80 | $0.16 | $0.15 | $0.13 | $0.12 | $0.11 | $0.11 | $0.10 | $0.09 | $0.09 | $0.08 | $0.08 |
$2.00 | $0.18 | $0.16 | $0.15 | $0.13 | $0.13 | $0.12 | $0.11 | $0.10 | $0.10 | $0.09 | $0.09 |
$2.20 | $0.19 | $0.17 | $0.16 | $0.15 | $0.14 | $0.13 | $0.12 | $0.11 | $0.11 | $0.10 | $0.10 |
$2.40 | $0.21 | $0.19 | $0.17 | $0.16 | $0.15 | $0.14 | $0.13 | $0.12 | $0.11 | $0.11 | $0.10 |
$2.60 | $0.22 | $0.20 | $0.18 | $0.17 | $0.16 | $0.15 | $0.14 | $0.13 | $0.12 | $0.12 | $0.11 |
$2.80 | $0.24 | $0.21 | $0.20 | $0.18 | $0.17 | $0.16 | $0.15 | $0.14 | $0.13 | $0.12 | $0.12 |
$3.00 | $0.25 | $0.23 | $0.21 | $0.19 | $0.18 | $0.17 | $0.16 | $0.15 | $0.14 | $0.13 | $0.13 |
$3.20 | $0.27 | $0.24 | $0.22 | $0.20 | $0.19 | $0.18 | $0.17 | $0.16 | $0.15 | $0.14 | $0.13 |
Price of PV-Installation in €/Wp
Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org. |
Solar power in the United States
Solar power in the People's Republic of China
BIPV-keynote-ICBEST.pdf nd-BIPV-WS_CHAMBERY_AIT-MR_16092014.pdf
Executive Summary Energy Payback Time
last 5 years from around 16 g/Wp to 6 g/Wp due to increased efficiencies and thinner wafers.
locations in Southern Europe; thus the net clean electricity production of a solar module is 95 %.
geographical location: PV systems in Northern Europe need around 2.5 years to balance the inherent energy, while PV systems in the South equal their energy input after 1.5 years and lesss.
Energy Payback Time in Years | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Radiation | Crystaline Silicon | Thin-film | |||
kWh/m²/a | Mono | Multi | Ribbon | CIS | CdTe |
1900 | ~1,5 | ~1,5 | ~0,9 | ~1,1 | ~0,7 |
1700 | ~1,7 | ~1,7 | ~1,1 | ~1,3 | ~0,8 |
1200 | ~2,4 | ~2,4 | ~1,5 | ~1,7 | ~1,2 |
PAGE Net energy gain note: the term redirects to this section Energy_payback_time#Sustainables
Module:Chart is a Lua module that may be used to create several different types of vertical bar graphs.
The template {{ Line chart}} implements line charts, such as:
Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org. |
Price of PV-Installation in €/kWp
Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org. |
[
prices history]
[[]
http://www.photovoltaik-guide.de/pv-preisindex Preisindex]
aktuelle-fakten-zur-photovoltaik-in-deutschland.pdf, p.34
source [55]
test "previous-revision" [2] w/index.php?title=European_Space_Agency&action=edit&oldid=620039758 [3] [4]
Solar power in Iceland is almost non-existant. This is not only because of Iceland's high latitude, but mainly because there are other renewable energy sources, such as geothermal and hydro power that provide almost 100 percent of the country's electricity needs. Due to the abundant and inexpensive renewable energy, Iceland plays an increasingly important role in the silicon industry, as a world leader in the production of metallurgical grade "green silicon" with several production plants being under construction. [56]
Year end | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Capacity (MWp) | 5,100 | 6,600 | 9,100 | 15,800 | 23,200 | 40,300 | 70,500 | 100,500 | 138,900 |
Growth (year-to-year) | 35% | 29% | 38% | 74% | 47% | 73% | 75% | 43% | 38% |
Location Examples |
Crystaline Silicon | Thin-film | Radiation Map Color |
Global Solar Potential in kWh/m²/a | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mono | Multi | Ribbon | CIGS | CdTe | |||
North-and Central Europe, Canada, New England | 2,4 | 2,4 | 1,5 | 1,7 | 1,2 | 1200 kWh | |
Southern Europe, South Africa, USA. South America | 1,7 | 1,7 | 1,1 | 1,3 | 0,8 | 1700 kWh | |
American Southwest, Australia, North Africa, Middle East | 1,5 | 1,5 | 0,9 | 1,1 | 0,7 | 1900 kWh | |
Source: |
Location Examples |
Crystaline Silicon | Thin-film | Radiation Map Color |
Global Solar Potential in kWh/m²/a | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mono | Multi | Ribbon | CIGS | CdTe | |||
North-and Central Europe, Canada, New England | 2,4 | 2,4 | 1,5 | 1,7 | 1,2 | 1200 kWh | |
Southern Europe, South Africa, USA. South America | 1,7 | 1,7 | 1,1 | 1,3 | 0,8 | 1700 kWh | |
American Southwest, Australia, North Africa, Middle East | 1,5 | 1,5 | 0,9 | 1,1 | 0,7 | 1900 kWh | |
Source: |
Approx- estimated figures to be amended In 2013, record lab cell efficiency was highest for crystalline silicon. However, multi-silicon is followed closely by Cadmium Telluride and Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells
Technology | 2014 | 2011 | 2008 |
---|---|---|---|
mono-Si | 25.0% | 25.0% | 25.0% |
multi-Si | 20.4% | 20.4% | 20.4% |
CIGS | 21.7% | 19% | 18% |
CdTe | 21.0% | 17% | 16% |
Gas | Volume(A) | ||
---|---|---|---|
Name | Formula | in ppmv(B) | in % |
Nitrogen | N2 | 780,840 | 78.084 |
Oxygen | O2 | 209,460 | 20.946 |
Argon | Ar | 9,340 | 0.9340 |
Carbon dioxide | CO2 | 397 | 0.0397 |
Neon | Ne | 18.18 | 0.001818 |
Helium | He | 5.24 | 0.000524 |
Methane | CH4 | 1.79 | 0.000179 |
Not included in above dry atmosphere: | |||
Water vapor(C) | H2O | 10–50,000(D) | 0.001%–5%(D) |
notes: (A)
volume fraction is equal to
mole fraction for ideal gas only, |
Country | 2009 | 2013 | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bhutan(B) | n.a. | 61 | ||||||
Brazil | 224 | 230 | ||||||
Canada | 53 | 35 | ||||||
China | 4310 | 5100 | ||||||
France | 66 | 170 | ||||||
Iceland | 81 | 80 | ||||||
India(B) | 59 | 70 | ||||||
Norway | 301 | 175 | ||||||
Russia | 537 | 700 | ||||||
South Africa | 116 | 130 | ||||||
Ukraine(B) | 98 | 78 | ||||||
United States | 139 | 360 | ||||||
Venezuela(B) | 54 | 60 | ||||||
Other countries | 266 | 430 | ||||||
World total(i) | 6,310 | 7,700 | ||||||
Source: minerals.usgs.gov
2013,
2009 Ferrosilicon grades include the two standard grades of ferrosilicon50% and 75% siliconplus miscellaneous silicon alloys, (ii) rounded |
Original Table in article Coal
German Classification | English Designation | Volatiles % | C Carbon % | H Hydrogen % | O Oxygen % | S Sulfur % | Heat content kJ/kg |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Braunkohle | Lignite (brown coal) | 45–65 | 60–75 | 6.0–5.8 | 34-17 | 0.5-3 | <28,470 |
Flammkohle | Flame coal | 40-45 | 75-82 | 6.0-5.8 | >9.8 | ~1 | <32,870 |
Gasflammkohle | Gas flame coal | 35-40 | 82-85 | 5.8-5.6 | 9.8-7.3 | ~1 | <33,910 |
Gaskohle | Gas coal | 28-35 | 85-87.5 | 5.6-5.0 | 7.3-4.5 | ~1 | <34,960 |
Fettkohle | Fat coal | 19-28 | 87.5-89.5 | 5.0-4.5 | 4.5-3.2 | ~1 | <35,380 |
Esskohle | Forge coal | 14-19 | 89.5-90.5 | 4.5-4.0 | 3.2-2.8 | ~1 | <35,380 |
Magerkohle | Nonbaking coal | 10-14 | 90.5-91.5 | 4.0-3.75 | 2.8-3.5 | ~1 | 35,380 |
Anthrazit | Anthracite | 7-12 | >91.5 | <3.75 | <2.5 | ~1 | <35,300 |
Percent by weight |
USD/MWh | 2013 | 2020 | 2025 | 2030 | 2035 | 2040 | 2045 | 2050 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Minimum | 119 | 96 | 71 | 56 | 48 | 45 | 42 | 40 |
Average | 177 | 133 | 96 | 81 | 72 | 68 | 59 | 56 |
Maximum | 318 | 250 | 180 | 139 | 119 | 109 | 104 | 97 |
Source:
IEA – Technology Roadmap: Solar Photovoltaic Energy report
[59]: 24
Note: All LCOE calculations in this table rest on 8% real discount rates as in ETP 2014 (IEA, 2014b). Actual LCOE might be lower with lower WACC. |
Country | Cost ($/W) |
---|---|
Australia | 1.8 |
China | 1.5 |
France | 4.1 |
Germany | 2.4 |
Italy | 2.8 |
Japan | 4.2 |
United Kingdom | 2.8 |
United States | 4.9 |
For residential PV systems in 2013 [59]: 15 |
Country | Cost ($/W) |
---|---|
Australia | 1.7 |
China | 1.4 |
France | 2.7 |
Germany | 1.8 |
Italy | 1.9 |
Japan | 3.6 |
United Kingdom | 2.4 |
United States | 4.5 |
For commercial PV systems in 2013 [59]: 15 |
Country | Cost ($/W) |
---|---|
Australia | 2.0 |
China | 1.4 |
France | 2.2 |
Germany | 1.4 |
Italy | 1.5 |
Japan | 2.9 |
United Kingdom | 1.9 |
United States | 3.3 |
For utility-scale PV systems in 2013 [59]: 15 |
Source Citi Research, DarwinismII, p.21 20. Comparison of major storage device technologies: Lithium-ion batteries offer high voltages and storage densities
Battery type |
Lithium ion |
Nickel Hydrogen |
Nickel Cadmium |
Lead Acid |
NAS |
Redox Flow |
EDLC |
Lithium ion Capacitor |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Discharge potential (V) | 2.4-3.8 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 2.1 | 2.08 | 1.4 | 0-3 | 2.2-3.8 |
Power density (W/kg) | 400-4,000 | 150-2,000 | 100-200 | 100-200 | – | – | 1,000-5,000 | 1,000-5,000 |
Energy density (Wh/kg) | 120-200 | 70 | 50 | 35 | 100 | 30 | 2-20 | 10-40 |
Cycle life (times) | 500-6,000 | 500-1,000 | 500-1,000 | 500-5,000 | 4,500 | 10,000> | 50,000> | 50,000> |
Charging efficiency | 95% | 85% | 85% | 80% | 75-85% | 80% | 95% | 95% |
Cost | Poor | Good | Good | Excellent | Poor | Poor | Very poor | Very poor |
Safety | Poor | Excellent | Good | Good | Very poor | Excellent | Excellent | Excellent |
Cathode material | Lithium compounds | Nickel hydroxide | Nickel hydroxide | Lead oxide | Sulfur | Carbon | NA | NA |
Anode material | Graphite | Hydrogen storing alloy | Cadmium hydroxide | Lead | Sodium | Carbon | NA | NA |
Electrolyte | Organic solvent lithium salt | Potassium hydroxide solution | Potassium hydroxide solution | Dilute sulfuric acid | βAlumina | Vanadium sulfate solution | NA | NA |
Characters | Risk of combustion | Self-discharge Memory effect |
Memory effect Cadmium is toxic |
Easily deteriorated Lead is toxic |
Operation at 300°C Risk of combustion |
Pump circulation Vanadium is toxic |
Good power density Self-discharge |
Good power density Self-discharge |
Source: Company data, Citi Research Energy Darwinism II, 2014 [60] |
Country | # PV systems |
---|---|
Australia | 1,000,000 |
France | 300,000 |
Germany | 1,400,000 |
India | 7,000,000 |
Japan | 1,400,000 |
United Kingdom | 510,000 |
United Kingdom(A) | 440,000 |
Sources: Citi Research (A)US-figures [61] |
Year | Name of PV power station | Country |
Capacity MW |
---|---|---|---|
1982 | Lugo | United States | 1 |
1985 | Carrisa Plain | United States | 5.6 |
2005 | Bavaria Solarpark (Mühlhausen) | Germany | 6.3 |
2006 | Erlasee Solar Park | Germany | 11.4 |
2008 | Olmedilla Photovoltaic Park | Spain | 60 |
2010 | Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant | Canada | 97 |
2011 | Huanghe Hydropower Golmud Solar Park | China | 200 |
2012 | Agua Caliente Solar Project | United States | 290 |
2014 | Topaz Solar Farm | United States | 550 |
sources, table article, year= Final commissioning |
For comparison, the largest power stations by technology are:
Capacity ( MW) |
Technology | Largest power station | Info and list |
---|---|---|---|
392 | concentrated solar thermal ( CSP) | Ivanpah Solar Power Facility | Example |
8,200 | Nuclear power | Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant | Operation suspended since 2011, List of nuclear power stations |
22,500 | Hydro power | Three Gorges Dam | Example |
Example | [[Wind power | Example | Example |
Example | Example | Example | Example |
Object | AU | Range | Comment and reference point | Refs |
---|---|---|---|---|
Earth | 0.0003 | ± 0.02 | Circumference of the Earth at the Equator (rounded) | – |
Moon | 0.0026 | ± 0.0001 | Average distance from the Earth. It took the Apollo missions about 3 days to travel that distance. | – |
Mercury | 0.39 | ± 0.09 | Average distance from the Sun | – |
Venus | 0.72 | ± 0.01 | Average distance from the Sun | – |
Earth | 1.00 | ± 0.02 | Average distance from the Sun | – |
Mars | 1.52 | ± 0.14 | Average distance from the Sun | – |
Ceres | 2.77 | ± 0.22 | Average distance from the Sun | – |
Jupiter | 5.20 | ± 0.25 | The largest planet's average distance of from the Sun | – |
Betelgeuse | 5.5 | – | Mean diameter of the red supergiant | – |
NML Cygni | 7.67 | – | Radius of the largest known star | – |
Saturn | 9.58 | ± 0.53 | Average distance from the Sun | – |
Uranus | 19.23 | ± 0.85 | Average distance from the Sun | – |
Neptune | 30.10 | ± 0.34 | Average distance from the Sun | – |
Kuiper belt | 30 | – | Begins at roughly that distance from the Sun | [62] |
New Horizons | 31.46 | – | Spacecraft's distance from the Sun, as of 21 January 2015 | [63] |
Pluto | 39.3 | ± 9.6 | Average distance from the Sun. Varies by almost 10 AU due to its elliptic orbit. | – |
Scattered disc | 45 | – | Roughly begins at that distance from the Sun. It overlaps about 10 AU with Kuiper Belt | – |
Kuiper belt | 52 | ± 3 | Ends at that distance from the Sun | – |
Eris | 68.01 | 29.64 | The dwarf planets distance from the Sun | – |
90377 Sedna | 76 | – | Closet distance from the Sun ( perihelion) | – |
90377 Sedna | 87 | – | Current distance from the Sun, as of 2012 [update]. It is an object of the scattered disc and takes 11,400 years to orbit the Sun. | [64] |
Termination shock | 94 | – | Distance from the Sun of boundary between solar winds/ interstellar winds/ interstellar medium | – |
Eris | 96.7 | – | Distance form the Sun, as of 2009 [update]. Eris and its moon are currently the most distant known objects in the Solar System apart from long-period comets and space probes. | [65] |
Heliosheath | 100 | – | The region of the heliosphere beyond the termination shock, where the solar wind is slowed down, turbulent and compressed due to the interstellar medium | – |
Voyager 1 | 125 | – | as of August 2013 [update], the space probe is the furthest human-made object from the Sun; it is currently traveling at about 3½ au/yr. | [66] |
90377 Sedna | 942 | – | Farthest distance from the Sun ( aphelion) | – |
Hills cloud | 2,000 | ± 1000 | Beginning of Hills cloud/inner Oort cloud | – |
Hills cloud | 20,000 | – | Ending of Hills cloud/inner Oort cloud, beginning of outer Oort cloud | – |
Light-year | 63,241 | – | The distance light travels in 1 Julian year (365.25 days, rounded) | – |
Oort cloud | 75,000 | ± 25,000 | Distance of the outer limit of Oort cloud from the Sun (estimated, corresponds to 1.2 ly) | – |
Parsec | 206,265 | – | Distance of one parsec in AU (rounded) | – |
Hill/Roche sphere | 230,000 | – | Maximum extent of influence of the Sun's gravitational field ()—beyond this is true interstellar medium. This distance is 1.1 parsecs (3.6 light-years). | [67] [67] |
Proxima Centauri | 268,000 | est | Distance to the nearest star to our Solar System | – |
Sirius | 544,000 | – | Distance of the brightest star in the Earth's night sky (corresponds to 8.6 light-years) | – |
Betelgeuse | 40,663,000 | – | Distance to the star in the constellation of Orion (corresponds to 643 light-years) | – |
Galactic Center | 1,700,000,000 | – | Distance from the Sun to the center of the Milky Way 1.7×109 au | – |
Note: figures in this table are generally rounded, estimates, often rough estimates, and may considerably differ from other sources. Table also includes other units of length for comparison. |
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