Seal | |||||||||||
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Chinese name | |||||||||||
Traditional Chinese | 印 · 章 · 璽 · 鑑 | ||||||||||
Simplified Chinese | 印 · 章 · 玺 · 鉴 | ||||||||||
Hanyu Pinyin | yìn · zhāng · xǐ · jiàn other names | ||||||||||
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Vietnamese name | |||||||||||
Vietnamese | ấn giám · đồ chương · ấn chương | ||||||||||
Korean name | |||||||||||
Hangul | [인감 or 도장 · 인장] Error: {{Lang}}: text has italic markup ( help) | ||||||||||
Hanja | 印鑑 · 圖章 · 印章 | ||||||||||
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Japanese name | |||||||||||
Kanji | 印鑑 · 印章 · 判子 | ||||||||||
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In the Chinese cultural sphere, a seal ( pinyin: yìn, colloquially known as a "chop" [1]), refers to a carefully carved stamp or the imprint created by the stamp, which has been used in lieu of an emblem of identity and authority for over 3000 years. [2] [3]
HYBRID—As a hybrid form of traditional Chinese art, that integrates seal script calligraphy, carving techniques, the aesthetics of painting and the socio-cultural milieu of the time, Chinese seal carving is a miniaturist art which seeks a balance of beauty within a square inch. [4] [5]
4 PERFECTIONS—Along with painting, calligraphy and pottery seal carving became recognised as one of the "Four Perfections" ( Chinese: 四絕; pinyin: sìjué) of the traditional Chinese art, along with . [6] The same can be said of seal engraving, which became one of the "four perfections," together with poetry, calligraphy and painting. [7]
Chinese seals are artistically engraved with Chinese characters (words) or sometimes pictures, typically made from stone—sometimes also from metals, wood, bamboo, plastic or ivory— and are most commonly used with red ink or cinnabar paste ( pinyin: zhūshā), [8] by pressing them into an oily red paste and then stamping them on documents or artworks to leave their mark. [9]
The history of seal carving in China can be traced back to the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 BC— 1046 BC), when pictographic characters and simple decorative patterns were engraved onto animal bones, tortoise shells and bronze vessels for divination and tantric purposes. The oracle inscriptions discovered in the Anyang excavations in Henan are the earliest known Chinese seals. [4] [10]
The Qin Dynasty ( 221 BC— 206 BC) was a turning point of the development of Chinese seals. The First Emperor of China introduced the imperial seal, Heirloom Seal of the Realm, as a divine symbol of the emperorship. [11] [13] In addition, he implemented a standardised system to regulate the use of official seals, which was further enhanced in the Western Han period. Also, a special government body was established to oversee the display and possession of official seals. [14]
From as early as the 2nd millennium BC, seals have been used to identify ownership, to authenticate documents and to establish political or religious authority in China. [20] By the Ming Dynasty, seals were regarded aesthetic objects by the elite, and seal engraving, as a special form of calligraphy, evolved into an important aspect of the literati's cultivated pursuits. [2]
As identification is the primary function, most seals are engraved with personal names of individuals and are therefore known as name seals.
There is as great a variety among such seals as there is among the individual artists themselves; the most common practice is to include the imprint of both family name and given name in full into one seal. Many choose courtesy or art names while others adopt fanciful pseudonyms. [20]
Another type of name seal is studio seal. As the name suggests, a studio seal proclaims the studio of the artist. [21] An artist chooses a studio name not only for identification, but to reflect his personal philosophy. [20] Studio seals carry the name of the person's private studio 書齋, which most literati in ancient China had, although probably in lesser forms. These are more or less rectangular in shape.[ citation needed]
Seals are often used on Chinese artworks including calligraphy works and paintings. According to the characters inscribed upon them, seals applied to most often fall into the three types, and usually imprinted in such works in the order (from top to bottom) of name seal, leisure seal(s), then studio seal.
If a work has only one seal, it will surely be the name of the artist, i.e. the name seal. The other two types are the leisure seal and the studio seal. [21]
Among appraisers, archivists and collectors, there is a consensus that a studio seal does not negatively affect its value as a piece of fine art. [22]
A studio name stamped on an old calligraphic work indicates "this work has been in my collection" or "I authenticate this work as genuine". [23]
Owners or collectors of paintings or books will often add their own studio seals to pieces they have collected. This practice is an act of appreciation towards the work. Some artworks have had not only seals but inscriptions of the owner on them; for example, the Qianlong emperor had as many as 20 different seals for use with inscriptions on paintings he collected. Provided that it is tastefully done (for example, not obscuring the body of the painting, appropriate inscription, fine calligraphy, etc.), this practice does not devalue the painting but could possibly enhance it by giving it further provenance, especially if it is a seal of a famous or celebrated individual who possessed the work at some point.[ citation needed]
Nomenclature of Chinese seals varied greatly from the Qin Dynasty down to the Ming and Qing periods, employing such terms as "hsi" (玺) "pao" (宝) "yin"(印) "chang" (章) "chi" (记) and "guan- fang" (官方). [13]
Prior to the Qin Dynasty, seals of all kinds were referred to as xi (玺) during the Warring States period. To highlight the absolute authority of the emperor, Qin Shihuang defferentiated the names and materials of the imperial seal and seals of government officials. xi the definition of "xi" became restricted to the severely truncated meaning imposed by cultural the emperor's seal was called “Xi,” and made of jade, while official and private seals were call “Yin.”
This system vas further perfected in the Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-A.D. 23), when the seals were further classified into three categories: “Xi”, “Zhang” and “Yin.”
The knobs were festooned with thread, rope, or ribbons of different colors, which differentiated their use based on the classes of officials they were to represent. For example, officials from the central government to the local government could be identified in grades according to the seals that they possessed. Official seals were issued or taken away when the appointment or removal of official titles were announced.
In terms of government authorities, ...
Emperors of China, royal families and feudal officials used large seals known as xǐ (璽), later renamed bǎo (寶, "treasure"), which corresponds to the Great Seals of Western countries. These were usually made of jade (although hard wood or precious metal could also be used), and were originally square in shape. They were changed to a rectangular form during the Song Dynasty, but reverted to square during the Qing Dynasty.
In the People's Republic of China, the seal of the Central People's Government from 1949 to 1954 [24] was a square, bronze seal with side lengths of 9 centimetres. The inscription reads "Seal of the Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China". Notably, the seal uses the relatively modern Song typeface rather than the more ancient seal scripts, and the seal is called a yìn (印), not a xǐ (玺), in a nod to modernity. Government seals in the People's Republic of China today are usually circular in shape, and have a five-pointed star in the centre of the circle. The name of the governmental institution is arranged around the star in a semicircle.
In Taiwan, the government has continued to use traditional square seals of up to about 13 centimetres each side, known by a variety of names depending on the user's hierarchy. Part of the inaugural ceremony for the President of the Republic of China includes bestowing on him the Seal of the Republic of China and the Seal of Honor.
These seals typically bore the titles of the offices, rather than the names of the owners. Different seals could be used for different purposes: for example, Emperor Qianlong had a number of informal appreciation seals [乾隆御覽之寶] used on select paintings in his collection.
The most popular style of script for government seals in the imperial ages of China (from Song to Qing) is the Nine-fold Script (九叠文, jiǔdiéwén), a highly stylised script which is unreadable to the untrained.
Chinese chops are still used for a wide variety of purposes in Taiwan and mainland China. They are used as identification when signing for a parcel or registered mail, or signing checks at the bank (legal papers and bank transactions). Since seals are hard to forge and should only be accessible to the owner, they are accepted as proof of ID. Signatures are sometimes required along with the chop stamp, the two together being an almost failsafe method of identification.
Chops are also used for conducting business. Companies must have at least one chop for signing contracts and other legal documents. Large companies may have chops for each department. For example, the financial department may have its own chop for bank transactions, and the human resources department may have a chop for signing employee contracts.
Seals are still used for official purposes in a number of contexts. When collecting parcels or registered post, the name seal serves as an identification, akin to a signature. In banks, traditionally the method of identification was also by a seal. Seals remain the customary form of identification on cheques in Mainland China and Taiwan but not in Hong Kong where signatures are required. Today, personal identification is often by a hand signature accompanied by a seal imprint. Seals can serve as identification with signatures because they are difficult to forge (when compared to forging a signature) and only the owner has access to his own seal.
Since chops have such an important legal significance, they are carefully managed. Businesses must have a system for controlling the use of chops, and will often require written information each time a chop is used. Managers must keep track of the location of chops and make a report each time a company chop is used.
As a novelty souvenir, seal carvers also ply tourist business at Chinatowns and tourist destinations in China. They often carve on-the-spot or translations of foreign names on inexpensive soapstone, sometimes featuring Roman characters. Though such seals can be functional, they are typically nothing more than curios and may be inappropriate for serious use and could actually devalue or deface serious works of art.
“ | 夫篆刻豈小技乎?其中有書法、有意法、有刀法,三者不可不講也。所謂書法者,古人作字不外六書,失之毫釐,謬以千里。若不深加考據,妄以己意奏泊,非書法也。章法者,點劃之間,自有向背。一字有一字之法,幾字有幾字之法,方圓不同,修短各異,照應收放,悉有原本。微有牽率強合之病,非章法矣。至於刀法,非燕尾鋸齒之謂也,日漸月摩,純熟之至,迎刃而出,自然渾融,具有天趣。否則,刻意摹古。痕跡未化,非刀法矣。 —(清) 王撰:《寶晉齋印譜》 Chinese seal carving is not an average skill. It is indispensable to deal with the methodologies of [seal script] calligraphy (shufa), ideas (yifa), and carving (daofa). |
” |
— Wang Zhuan, adapted from Seal Collections of Baojin Studio. [26] |
Chinese seal carving is a miniaturist art; the carver attempts to strike a balance of beauty, all within a square inch.
Who practices the ancient art of Chinese seal carving, etching characters onto small blocks of jade. ivory, or other soft precious stones.
Chinese seals and seal carving are inextricably linked to the arts of Chinese calligraphy and painting and hence occupy a central place in Chinese culture. No calligraphy or painting is deemed complete until an impression with an inked seal stone is pressed onto It.
[5]
It requires artistic talent to carve a set of Chinese characters in their mirror image on the surface of a piece of raw material,
[3]
and the demands on the seal-maker in terms of time and skill great, placing the“craft”of sealcutting firmly in the realm of fine art.
[15]
Seal knobs are the carved decorations on the top of Chinese-style seals. Although in modern times tigers and dragons are most common (at least for sale to tourists) in ancient times there was a wide variety in seal knobs. [27] Seal Knobs
The seals of the Warring States period 475-221 B.C.) were mostly engraved in the script of da zhuan (a calligraphic style with complicated strokes, originating in the Zhou Dynasty (1100-221 B.C.); the later script created in the Qin Dynasty (221-207 B.C.) was called xiao zhuan. Thus da buan (big seal script) or xiao haan (small seal script) were later regarded as seal scripts.
Seals are further differentiated by the characters they possess. Seals may either have the characters etched into the surface, creating white characters on a red field, or they may be raised from the surface, resulting in red characters. The former type is known as an intaglio, or red-character seal (朱文印/Zhu Wen Yin/Chu Wen Yin), while the latter is known as a relief, or white-character seal(白文印/Bai Wen Yin/Pai Wen Yin). When selecting seals for a work, it is important that the seals are not of the same type. Having two intaglio or two relief seals in close proximity is considered a poor choice, as the values of variety and balance are just as important in the application of the seals as they are in the creation of the artwork. [28]
A well-made seal made from semi-precious stones can cost between 400 and 4000 yuan.
印章只是書畫中的附庸,大多只達到傳意的實用功能 除了秦漢時印章上的文字較重視字體、筆觸外, 例如元時印文字體纖弱,缺乏書法的氣韻,遑論藝術價值。
同時不以刻姓名齋館印為滿足,經常將詩文雋語刻入印中,拓展印章的內涵 在他又首開冶印在邊款留名之例,確認印章為「個人創作」的地位,成為可以單獨欣賞的作品。 真正把印章帶入藝術領域的。
到了清朝,金石之學大興,鼓勵了篆刻的發展,至此流派林立 編印譜亦成為風氣,使得篆刻藝術更加豐富璀璨。
Seal artists Chinese seal artists
Initially —
Prior to the Ming dynasty, seals were just an adjunct to calligraphy and painting, most seals served a purely practical function.
apart from the calligraphic importance of Ch'in and Han dynasty seals.
Song-Yuan dynasties — In the period of the Song and Yuan dynasties (c. mid-10th to mid-14th century), stamping seals on the works of painting and calligraphy came into vogue among painters, calligraphers, collectors and appraisers. In addition to personal names and studio names, collection appraisal signs and set phrases were also carved on seals.
By mid-Ming — Many intellectuals became devoted to doing their own creative carving of seals on stones, and a group of celebrated literati seal carvers had grown up by the mid Ming period of 16th century. Their distinguished styles in carving, composition and calligraphy exerted great influences on later seal carvers and various seal carving schools formed after them. [29]
Qing — Interest in bronze and stone inscriptions among Qing Dynasty scholars encouraged the development of seal carving and many different schools arose. Catalogues of seal carvings also enriched the genre as an art form. [23]
Late-Qing development (Development of the 20th century) — In the late Qing period (19th century), blazing new trails and pursuing individuality was the main trend of seal carvings. The carvers assimilated the techniques of previous masters and brought forth their individual styles in practice. Wu Changshuo's bold and vigorous style is a very good example. This trend has a deep influence on modern seal carving. [29]
Prior to the Ming dynasty, seals were mostly made by pseudonymous handicrafters; the Ming artist Wen Peng was the first to acknowledge seal as an art work to be appreciated in its own right, by nothing the authorship through the name inscription on seal sides. [23]
Wen was famous for ivory seal making, and his work and style of creation were at the forefront of the art of seal carving. [30] As originator of the literati seal carving, [29] Wen was credited for bringing seal handicraft into the realm of art. [23] He inherited the traditions of the antique Han-style calligraphy in his works, and opened up new avenues of seal calligraphy. [30] Also, he broadened the scope of Chinese seals by introducing verses into seal imprints, which is a significant contribution to the development of leisure seals. [23]
Li Lanqing (b. 1932) is a prolific seal carver and calligrapher, who previously served as Vice Premier of the State Council of China from 1993 to 2003. In his retirement, Li has been instrumental in bringing about a dramatic transformation in this traditional art to revive the traditional practices of seal carving and calligraphy to their previous popularity enjoyed in the Qing dynasty. [9]
Bai Qianshen (白謙慎, b. 1955) is an accomplished calligrapher and seal carver, as well as a scholar of the historical and literary aspects of the arts, with research interests in Chinese calligraphy, painting, and seal carving, particularly from the late Ming to the present. [5] [33]
In Japan, seals in general are referred to as inkan ( 印鑑) or hanko ( 判子 [34]). Inkan is the most comprehensive term; hanko tends to refer to seals used in less important documents. [35] [36]
The first evidence of writing in Japan is a hanko dating from AD 57, made of solid gold given to the ruler of Nakoku by Emperor Guangwu of Han. At first, only the Emperor and his most trusted vassals held hanko, as they were a symbol of the Emperor's authority. Noble people began using their own personal hanko after 750, and samurai began using them sometime during the Feudal Period. Samurai were permitted exclusive use of red ink. After modernization began in 1870, hanko finally came into general use throughout Japanese society.
The material is usually a high quality hard stone, and far less frequently deerhorn, soapstone, or jade. It's sometimes carved by machine. When it's carved by hand, an intō ("seal-engraving blade"), a mirror, and a small specialized wooden vice are used. An intō is a flat-bladed pencil-sized chisel, usually round or octagonal in cross-section and sometimes wrapped in string to give the handle a non-slip surface. The intō is held vertically in one hand, with the point projecting from one's fist on the side opposite one's thumb. New, modern intō range in price from less than US$1 to US$100.
Government offices and corporations usually have inkan specific to their bureau or company, and which follow the general rules outlined for jitsuin with the following exceptions. In size, they are comparatively enormous, measuring 2 to 4 inches (5.1 to 10.2 cm) across. Their handles are often extremely ornately carved with friezes of mythical beasts or hand-carved hakubun inscriptions that might be quotes from literature, names and dates, or original poetry. Some have been carved with square tunnels from handle to underside, so that a specific person can slide his own inkan into the hollow, thus signing a document with both his own name and his business's (or bureau's) name. These seals are usually stored in jitsuin-style boxes under high security except at official ceremonies, at which they are displayed on extremely ornate stands or in their boxes.
In modern Japan, most people have several inkan, although the increasing ease with which modern technology allows hanko fraud is beginning to cause some concern that the present system will not be able to survive. A certificate of authenticity is required for any hanko used in a significant business transaction. Registration and certification of an inkan may be obtained in a local municipal office (e.g. city hall). There, a person receives a "certificate of seal impression" known as inkan tōroku shōmei-sho ( 印鑑登録証明書).
Personal uses
For personal use, there are at least four kinds of seals. In order from most formal/official to least, they are: registered seal jitsuin, bank seal ginkō-in, unregistered seal/name seal mitome-in and pseudonym seal gagō-in. [34] [38] For most transactions in Japan, signatures are not required. But in some cases, such as signing a cell phone contract, a signature might be compulsory, sometimes in addition to a stamp from a mitome-in. For these transactions, a jitsuin is too official, while a mitome-in alone is insufficient, and thus signatures are used.[ citation needed]
The seal was first introduced to Korea in approximately 2nd century BCE. The remaining oldest record of its usage in Korea is that kings of Buyeo used a royal seal (oksae: 옥새, 玉璽) which bore the inscription of Seal of the King of Ye ( 濊王之印, 예왕지인). The use of seals became popular during the Three Kingdoms of Korea period.
In the case of State Seals in monarchic Korea, there were two types in use: Gugin (국인, 國印) which was conferred by the Emperor of China to Korean kings, with the intent of keeping relations between two countries as brothers ( Sadae). This was used only in communications with China and for the coronation of kings. Others, generally called eobo (어보, 御寶) or eosae (어새, 御璽), are used in foreign communications with countries other than China, and for domestic uses. With the declaration of establishment of Republic of Korea in 1948, its government created a new State Seal, guksae (국새, 國璽) and it is used in promulgation of constitution, designation of cabinet members and ambassadors, conference of national orders and important diplomatic documents.
Seals were also used by government officials in documents. These types of seals were called gwanin (관인, 官印) and it was supervised by specialist officials.
In traditional arts, like in China and Japan, an artist of Chinese calligraphy and paintings would use their seals (generally leisure seals and studio seals) to identify his/her work. These types of seals were called Nakkwan (낙관, 落款). As seal-carving itself was considered a form of art, many artists carved their own seals. Seals of Joseon-period calligraphist and natural historian Kim Jung-hee (aka Wandang or Chusa) are considered as antiquity.
In modern Korea, the use of seals is still common. Most Koreans have personal seals, and every government agency and commercial corporation has its own seals to use in public documents. While signing is also accepted, many Koreans think it is more formal to use seals in public documents. However, in 2008 the Constitutional Court of South-Korea upheld a Supreme court judgement that a signed and handwritten will which lacked a registered seal was invalid. [39]
Personal seals (dojang in general reference) in Korea can be classified by their legal status. Ingam (인감, 印鑑) or sirin (실인, 實印), meaning registered seal, is the seal which is registered to local office. By registering the seal, a person can issue a "certificate of seal registration" (ingam-jungmyeong-seo (인감증명서, 印鑑證明書) in Korean) which is a required document for most significant business transactions and civil services. The legal system of registered seals was introduced by the Japanese colonial government in 1914, however it is slated to be replaced by an electronic certification system in 2013 in order to counter fraud. [40] While ingam is used in important business, other dojangs are used in everyday purpose such as less-significant official transactions. Thus most Koreans have more than two seals.
Korean seals are made of wood, jade, or sometimes ivory for more value. State Seals were generally made of gold or high-quality jade. Rare cases of bronze or steel seals exist.
It is pressed lightly into the red paste to trthe image is transferred to paper by applying pressure to the seal. There may be a soft surface beneath the paper to ensure a clean transfer of the image. The paste is kept in a covered jar when not in use to prevent it from drying out. [8]
Determining which side of the seal should face up may be done in a number of ways: if there is a carving on top, the front should face the user; if there is an inscription on the side, it should face to the left of the user; if there is a dot on the side, it should face away from the user.
Once seals are used, as much paste as possible is wiped from the printing surface and off the edges with a suitable material. The seals are kept in a constant environment, especially seals made of sandalwood or black ox horn. Tall thin seals are best kept on their sides, in case they should wobble and fall down. More important seals, such as authority and society seals are encased or wrapped in a golden silk cloth to add more protection.There are two types of seal paste depending on what base material they are made of.
Plant-based paste tends to dry more quickly than silk-based pastes because the plant extract does not hold onto the oil as tightly as silk. Depending on the paper used, plant pastes can dry in 10 to 15 minutes. The more absorbent the paper is, the faster it dries as the paper absorbs most of the oil. Also, plant pastes tend to smudge more easily than silk pastes due to the loose binding agent.
The paste is kept covered after it has been used, in its original container (be it plastic or ceramic). It is kept in an environment away from direct sunlight and away from intense heat to prevent it from drying out.
When the seal is pressed onto the printing surface, the procedure differs according to plant or silk based paste. For silk based paste, the user applies pressure, often with a specially made soft, flat surface beneath the paper, and rocks it forward and back, left and right slightly. For plant based paste, the user simply applies light pressure. As lifting the seal vertically away from its imprint may rip or damage paper, the seal is usually lifted off one side at a time, as if bent off from the page. After this, the image may be blotted with a piece of paper to make it dry faster, although this may smudge it.{{
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