The
orderTrigonotarbida is a group of extinct
arachnids whose
fossil record extends from the late
Silurian to the early
Permian (
Pridoli to
Sakmarian).[1][2][3] These animals are known from several localities in
Europe and
North America, as well as a single record from
Argentina. Trigonotarbids can be envisaged as
spider-like arachnids, but without silk-producing
spinnerets. They ranged in size from a few millimetres to a few centimetres in body length and had segmented abdomens (
opisthosoma), with the dorsal exoskeleton (
tergites) across the backs of the animals' abdomens, which were characteristically divided into three or five separate plates.[1] Probably living as predators on other
arthropods, some later trigonotarbid species were quite heavily armoured and protected themselves with spines and tubercles.[4] About seventy species are currently known, with most fossils originating from the
Carboniferouscoal measures.
Historical background
The first trigonotarbid was described in 1837 from the coal measures of
Coalbrookdale in
England by the famous English geologist Dean
William Buckland.[5] He believed it to be a fossil
beetle and named it Curculoides prestvicii. A much better preserved example was later discovered from
Coseley near
Dudley; also in the English
West Midlands conurbation. Described in 1871 by
Henry Woodward,[6] he correctly identified it as an arachnid and renamed it Eophrynus prestvicii—whereby the genus name comes from ἠώς (eos, meaning 'dawn'), and Phrynus, a genus of living whip spider (
Amblypygi). Woodward subsequently described another trigonotarbid, Brachypyge carbonis, from the coal measures of
Mons in
Belgium;[7] although this fossil is known only from its abdomen and was initially mistaken for those of a
crab.
A new arachnid order
In 1882, the German
zoologistFerdinand Karsch described a number of fossil arachnids from the coal measures of
Neurode in
Silesia (now
Poland), including one he named Anthracomartus voelkelianus in honour of Herr Völkel, the foreman of the mine where it was discovered.[9] This species was raised to a new, extinct, arachnid order which Karsch called Anthracomarti. The name is derived from ἄνθραξ (anthrax), the Greek word for
coal. A number of other fossils which would eventually be placed in Trigonotarbida were discovered around this time.
Hanns Bruno Geinitz described Kreischeria wiedei from the coal measures of
Zwickau in
Germany,[10] although he interpreted it as a fossil
pseudoscorpion. Johann Kušta described Anthracomartus krejcii[11] from
Rakovník in the
Czech Republic, and published further descriptions in a number of subsequent papers.[12][13][14] In 1884,
Samuel Hubbard Scudder described Anthracomartus trilobitus from
Fayetteville, Arkansas—the first trigonotarbid from
North America.[15]
Early studies tended to confuse trigonotarbids with other living or extinct groups of arachnids; particularly harvestmen (
Opiliones). Petrunkevitch's division of the trigonotarbids into two, unrelated, orders was noted above. In detail, he divided the arachnids into suborders based on the width of the division between the two parts of the body (the
prosoma and
opisthosoma). Anthracomartida and another extinct order,
Haptopoda, were grouped into a subclass Stethostomata defined by a broad division of the body and downward-hanging mouthparts. Trigonotarbida was placed in its own subclass Soluta and defined as having a division of the body which was variable in width. Petrunkevitch's scheme was largely followed in subsequent studies of fossil arachnids.
Pantetrapulmonata
In the 1980s, Bill Shear and colleagues[18] carried out an important study on well preserved Mid Devonian trigonotarbids from
Gilboa, New York. They questioned whether it was appropriate to define a group of animals on a variable character state and carried out the first
cladistic analysis of fossil and living arachnids. They showed that trigonotarbids are closely related to a group of arachnids which have gone under various names (Caulogastra, Arachnidea, etc.), but for which the name
Tetrapulmonata has become most widespread.[19] Members of the Tetrapulmonata include
spiders (
Araneae), whip spiders (
Amblypygi), whip scorpions (
Uropygi) and shorttailed whipscorpion (
Schizomida) and, together with trigonotarbids, share characters like two pairs of
book lungs and similar mouthparts with fangs operating rather like a pocket knife.[20] In a 2007 study of arachnid relationships, the Shear et al. hypothesis was largely supported and a group
Pantetrapulmonata was proposed which comprises Trigonotarbida + Tetrapulmonata.[21] This has since been corroborated in more recent cladistic analyses.[22][23][24][25]
Trigonotarbids and ricinuleids
Reconstruction of Palaeocharinus, a genus known to have tiny pedipalpal claws.
In 1892, Ferdinand Karsch suggested that the rare and rather bizarre-looking ricinuleids (
Ricinulei) were the last living descendants of the trigonotarbids.[26] A similar hypothesis was reintroduced by Dunlop,[16] who pointed out distinct similarities and possible
sister group relationship between these arachnid groups. Both have opisthosomal tergites divided into median and lateral plates and both have a complicated coupling mechanism between the prosoma and the opisthosoma which 'locks' the two halves of the body together. Although cladistic analysis has tended to recover ricinuleids in their traditional position closely related to mites and ticks, further discoveries have revealed that the tip of the pedipalp ends in a small claw in both trigonotarbids and ricinuleids.[17][27] If the hypothesis is true, ricinuleids, despite the lack of tetrapulmonate key characters (e.g. book lungs), may represent part of the pantetrapulmonate clade alongside trigonotarbids as well.[16][17][20]
Trigonotarbids superficially resemble
spiders, but can be easily recognised by having
tergites on the dorsal side of the opisthosoma divided into median and lateral plates.[28] This character is shared with ricinuleids (
Ricinulei) (see also
Ricinulei#Relationships). As in other arachnids, the body is divided into a
prosoma (or cephalothorax) and
opisthosoma (or abdomen). Body length ranges from a couple of millimetres up to about 5 cm (2.0 in).[29]
Prosoma
The prosoma is covered by the
carapace and always bears a pair of median eyes.[1] In the probably basal families
Palaeocharinidae,
Anthracomartidae[30]—and perhaps also
Anthracosironidae—there is an additional pair of lateral eye tubercles which, at least in palaeocharinids,[31] appear to have borne a series of individual lenses. In this sense palaeocharinids seem to be in the process of reducing a
compound eye.[32] Anterior margin of the carapace protrude into a projection referred to as clypeus.[22]
The
chelicerae are of the "pocket-knife" type consisting of a basal segment and a sharp, curving fang.[1] The chelicerae are described as paleognathic: the fangs are held parallel to one another, like those of
mesothele and
mygalomorph spiders, but the chelicerae hang downwards like those of
araneomorph spiders.[33] There is no evidence in well-preserved fossils for the opening of a venom gland, thus trigonotarbids were probably not
venomous. The chelicerae may have been slightly retractable into the prosoma. Well-preserved palaeocharinids show evidence for a small, slit-like mouth with an upper lip (a
labrum or rostrum) and a lower lip (or labium).[34] Inside the mouth there is some sort of filtering system formed from hairs or platelets which strongly suggests that trigonotarbids (like spiders and many other arachnids) could eat only preorally digested, liquified prey.[34]
The
pedipalps have the typical arachnid structure with a coxa, trochanter, femur, patella, tibia and tarsus. They are pediform, i.e. they look like small legs and were not highly modified.[35] There is no evidence for a special sperm transfer device as in the modified
palpal organ of male spiders. In at least the palaeocharinids and anthracomartids the tip of the pedipalp is modified into a small
chela (claw) formed from the
tarsal claw (or apotele) and a projection from the tarsus. As mentioned above, a very similar arrangement is seen at the end of the pedipalp in
Ricinulei.[17][27]
The walking legs again follow the typical arachnid plan with a coxa, trochanter, femur, patella, tibia, metatarsus and tarsus.[1] The coxae surround a single sternum. In well preserved palaeocharinids there is a ring, or annulus, around the trochanter–femur joint which may be the remains of an earlier leg segment.[35] The legs are largely unmodified, although in Anthracosironidae the forelegs are quite large and spiny,[36] presumably to help catch prey. The legs end in three claws, two large ones and a smaller median claw.[35]
Opisthosoma
The opisthosoma is largely suboval in outline with a flatten dorsal surface.[35] It compose of 12 segments, with some of them had undergone degrees of fusion or reduction, hence the previous misinterpretation of around 8 to 11 segments.[20]Tergite of the first segment partially covered by the posterior margin of preceding carapace, forming a complicated coupling mechanism known as 'locking ridge'.[1][20]Tergites of segment 2 to 8 (segment 9 in some species) were all laterally divided into 3 (one median and two lateral) plates, with those of segment 2 and 3 fused to each other in most species.[20] However, the corresponding tergites of the family
Anthracomartidae are further subdivided into 5 plates.[30] The last 3 segments are usually only visible from the ventral side,[1] with the 2 final segments constricted into a tiny ring-like section known as pygidium.[20]
Ventral side of opisthosomal segment 2 to 9 covered by series of lung-bearing opercula (2 and 3) and curved
sternites (4 to 9).[1][20] The first segment apparently lacking any ventral plates. Just like other lung-bearing
arachnids (
scorpion and
tetrapulmonate), the
book lungs of trigonotarbids formed by layers of trabecula-bearing lamellae, which is a feature adapted to a
terrestrial, air-breathing lifestyle.[37] A pair of ventral sacs located between the posterior operculum and following sternite had been observed in some species.[38][4][20]
Paleobiology
In July 2014 scientists used computer-based techniques to re-create a possible walking gait for the animal.[39][35] A subsequent review article suggested by comparison with mites, with presumably similar lifestyle and environment, a metachronal rather than alternating leg coordination was more likely.[40] Subsequent work by the researchers behind the initial publication[35] used simulation approaches to assess the efficiency of a range of gaits using an updated trigonotarbid model.[41]
Included taxa
As of 2020, 70 valid
species had been included under Trigonotarbida as follows:[3]
^
abJones, Fiona; Dunlop, Jason A.; Friedman, Matthew; Garwood, Russell J. (2014). "Trigonotarbus johnsoni Pocock, 1911, revealed by X-ray computed tomography, with a cladistic analysis of the extinct trigonotarbid arachnids". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 172 (1): 49–70.
doi:
10.1111/zoj.12167.
^F. Karsch (1882). "Ueber ein neues Spinnenthier aus der Schlesischen Steinkohle und die Arachnoiden überhaupt". Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft (in German). 34: 556–561.
^H. B. Geinitz (1882). "Kreischeria wiedei, ein Pseudoskorpion aus der Steinkohlenformation von Zwickau". Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft (in German). 34: 238–242.
^Johann Kušta (1883). "Anthracomartus krejcii, eine neue Arachnide aus dem Böhmischen Karbon". Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Böhmischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Klasse (in German). 1883: 7.
^Johann Kušta (1884). "Neue Arachniden aus der Steinkohlenformation von Rakonitz". Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Böhmischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Klasse (in German). 1884: 398–401.
^Johann Kušta (1885). "Neue fossile Arthropoden aus dem Noeggarathienschiefer von Rakonitz". Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Böhmischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Klasse (in German). 1885: 1–7.
^Johann Kušta (1888). "O nových arachnidech z karbonu Rakovnického. (Neue Arachniden aus der Steinkohlenformation bei Rakonitz)". Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Böhmischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Klasse (in Czech). 1888: 194–208.
^William A. Shear, Paul A. Selden, W. D. I. Rolfe, Patricia M. Bonamo & James D. Grierson (1987). "New terrestrial arachnids from the Devonian of Gilboa, New York". American Museum Novitates (2901): 1–74.
hdl:
2246/5166.{{
cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link)
^
abJason A. Dunlop (1994). "Comparative anatomy of filtration mechanisms in tetrapulmonate arachnids (Trigonotarbida, Araneae, Amblypygi, Uropygi and Schizomida)". Bulletin of the British Arachnological Society. 9: 267–273.