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Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics
A
timeline of
atomic and
subatomic physics.
Antiquity
6th - 2nd Century BCE
Kanada (philosopher) proposes that anu is an indestructible particle of matter, an "atom"; anu is an abstraction and not observable.
[1]
430 BCE
[2]
Democritus speculates about fundamental indivisible particles—calls them "
atoms "
The beginning of chemistry
The age of quantum mechanics
1887
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz discovers the
photoelectric effect that will play a very important role in the development of the
quantum theory with
Einstein 's explanation of this effect in terms of
quanta of light
1896
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovers the
X-rays while studying electrons in
plasma ;
scattering X-rays—that were considered as 'waves' of high-energy
electromagnetic radiation —
Arthur Compton will be able to demonstrate in 1922 the 'particle' aspect of electromagnetic radiation.
1900
Paul Villard discovers
gamma-rays while studying uranium decay
1900
Johannes Rydberg refines the expression for observed hydrogen line wavelengths
1900
Max Planck states his
quantum hypothesis and
blackbody radiation law
1902
Philipp Lenard observes that maximum
photoelectron energies are independent of illuminating intensity but depend on frequency
1905 Albert Einstein explains the
photoelectric effect
1906
Charles Barkla discovers that each element has a characteristic
X-ray and that the degree of penetration of these X-rays is related to the
atomic weight of the element
1909
Hans Geiger and
Ernest Marsden discover large angle deflections of alpha particles by thin metal foils
1909
Ernest Rutherford and
Thomas Royds demonstrate that alpha particles are doubly
ionized helium atoms
1911
Ernest Rutherford explains the
Geiger–Marsden experiment by invoking a nuclear atom model and derives the
Rutherford cross section
1908-1911
Jean Perrin proves the existence of
atoms and
molecules with
experimental work to test
Einstein's theoretical explanation of
Brownian motion
1911
Ștefan Procopiu measures the magnetic dipole moment of the electron
1912
Max von Laue suggests using
crystal lattices to
diffract X-rays
1912
Walter Friedrich and
Paul Knipping diffract X-rays in zinc blende
1913
William Henry Bragg and
William Lawrence Bragg work out the
Bragg condition for strong X-ray reflection
1913
Henry Moseley shows that nuclear charge is the real basis for numbering the elements
1913
Niels Bohr presents his
quantum model of the atom
[3]
1913
Robert Millikan measures the
fundamental unit of electric charge
1913
Johannes Stark demonstrates that strong electric fields will split the Balmer spectral line series of hydrogen
1914
James Franck and
Gustav Hertz observe atomic excitation
1914
Ernest Rutherford suggests that the positively charged atomic nucleus contains
protons
[4]
1915
Arnold Sommerfeld develops a modified
Bohr atomic model with elliptic orbits to explain relativistic fine structure
1916
Gilbert N. Lewis and
Irving Langmuir formulate an electron shell model of
chemical bonding
1917
Albert Einstein introduces the idea of
stimulated radiation emission
1918 Ernest Rutherford notices that, when
alpha particles were shot into
nitrogen gas, his
scintillation detectors showed the signatures of
hydrogen nuclei.
1921
Alfred Landé introduces the
Landé g-factor
1922
Arthur Compton studies X-ray photon
scattering by electrons demonstrating the 'particle' aspect of electromagnetic radiation.
1922
Otto Stern and
Walther Gerlach show "
spin quantization "
1923
Lise Meitner discovers what is now referred to as the
Auger process
1924
Louis de Broglie suggests that electrons may have wavelike properties in addition to their 'particle' properties; the
wave–particle duality has been later extended to all fermions and bosons.
1924
John Lennard-Jones proposes a semiempirical
interatomic force law
1924
Santiago Antúnez de Mayolo proposes a neutron.
1924
Satyendra Bose and Albert Einstein introduce
Bose–Einstein statistics
1925
Wolfgang Pauli states the quantum
exclusion principle for electrons
1925
George Uhlenbeck and
Samuel Goudsmit postulate electron
spin
1925
Pierre Auger discovers the
Auger process (2 years after
Lise Meitner )
1925
Werner Heisenberg ,
Max Born , and
Pascual Jordan formulate quantum
matrix mechanics
1926
Erwin Schrödinger states his nonrelativistic
quantum wave equation and formulates
quantum wave mechanics
1926
Erwin Schrödinger proves that the wave and matrix formulations of quantum theory are mathematically equivalent
1926
Oskar Klein and
Walter Gordon state their relativistic quantum wave equation, now the
Klein–Gordon equation
1926
Enrico Fermi discovers the
spin–statistics connection, for particles that are now called 'fermions', such as the electron (of
spin-1/2 ).
1926
Paul Dirac introduces
Fermi–Dirac statistics
1926
Gilbert N. Lewis introduces the term "photon ", thought by him to be "the carrier of
radiant energy . "
[5]
[6]
1927
Clinton Davisson ,
Lester Germer , and
George Paget Thomson confirm the
wavelike nature of electrons
[7]
1927
Werner Heisenberg states the quantum
uncertainty principle
1927
Max Born
interprets the probabilistic nature of wavefunctions
1927
Walter Heitler and
Fritz London introduce the concepts of
valence bond theory and apply it to the
hydrogen molecule.
1927
Thomas and
Fermi develop the
Thomas–Fermi model
1927
Max Born and
Robert Oppenheimer introduce the
Born–Oppenheimer approximation
1928
Chandrasekhara Raman studies optical photon scattering by electrons
1928
Paul Dirac states the
Dirac equation
1928
Charles G. Darwin and
Walter Gordon solve the
Dirac equation for a Coulomb potential
1928
Friedrich Hund and
Robert S. Mulliken introduce the concept of
molecular orbital
1929
Oskar Klein discovers the
Klein paradox
1929 Oskar Klein and
Yoshio Nishina derive the Klein–Nishina cross section for high energy photon scattering by electrons
1929
Nevill Mott derives the
Mott cross section for the Coulomb scattering of relativistic electrons
1930
Paul Dirac introduces electron hole theory
1930
Erwin Schrödinger predicts the
zitterbewegung motion
1930
Fritz London explains
van der Waals forces as due to the interacting fluctuating
dipole moments between molecules
1931
John Lennard-Jones proposes the
Lennard-Jones interatomic potential
1931
Irène Joliot-Curie and
Frédéric Joliot observe but misinterpret neutron scattering in paraffin
1931
Wolfgang Pauli puts forth the
neutrino hypothesis to explain the apparent violation of
energy conservation in beta decay
1931
Linus Pauling discovers resonance bonding and uses it to explain the high stability of symmetric planar molecules
1931
Paul Dirac shows that
charge quantization can be explained if
magnetic monopoles exist
1931
Harold Urey discovers
deuterium using evaporation concentration techniques and spectroscopy
1932
John Cockcroft and
Ernest Walton split
lithium and
boron nuclei using proton bombardment
1932
James Chadwick discovers the
neutron
1932
Werner Heisenberg presents the proton–neutron model of the nucleus and uses it to explain isotopes
1932
Carl D. Anderson discovers the
positron
1933
Ernst Stueckelberg (1932),
Lev Landau (1932), and
Clarence Zener discover the
Landau–Zener transition
1933
Max Delbrück suggests that quantum effects will cause photons to be scattered by an external electric field
1934
Irène Joliot-Curie and
Frédéric Joliot bombard
aluminium atoms with alpha particles to create artificially radioactive
phosphorus-30
1934
Leó Szilárd realizes that
nuclear chain reactions may be possible
1934
Enrico Fermi publishes a very successful model of beta decay in which neutrinos were produced.
1934
Lev Landau tells
Edward Teller that non-linear molecules may have
vibrational modes which remove the
degeneracy of an orbitally degenerate state (
Jahn–Teller effect )
1934
Enrico Fermi suggests bombarding uranium atoms with neutrons to make a 93 proton element
1934
Pavel Cherenkov reports that
light is emitted by relativistic particles traveling in a nonscintillating liquid
1935
Hideki Yukawa presents a theory of the
nuclear force and predicts the scalar
meson
1935
Albert Einstein ,
Boris Podolsky , and
Nathan Rosen put forth the
EPR paradox
1935
Henry Eyring develops the
transition state theory
1935
Niels Bohr presents his analysis of the EPR paradox
1936
Alexandru Proca formulates the relativistic quantum field equations for a massive vector meson of spin-1 as a basis for nuclear forces
1936
Eugene Wigner develops the theory of neutron absorption by atomic nuclei
1936
Hermann Arthur Jahn and
Edward Teller present their systematic study of the symmetry types for which the
Jahn–Teller effect is expected
[8]
1937 Carl Anderson proves experimentally the existence of the pion predicted by Yukawa's theory.
1937
Hans Hellmann finds the
Hellmann–Feynman theorem
1937
Seth Neddermeyer ,
Carl Anderson , J.C. Street, and E.C. Stevenson discover
muons using
cloud chamber measurements of
cosmic rays
1939
Richard Feynman finds the Hellmann–Feynman theorem
1939
Otto Hahn and
Fritz Strassmann bombard uranium salts with
thermal neutrons and discover
barium among the reaction products
1939
Lise Meitner and
Otto Robert Frisch determine that
nuclear fission is taking place in the Hahn–Strassmann experiments
1942
Enrico Fermi makes the first controlled nuclear chain reaction
1942
Ernst Stueckelberg introduces the propagator to positron theory and interprets positrons as negative energy electrons moving backwards through spacetime
Quantum field theory
1947
Willis Lamb and
Robert Retherford measure the
Lamb–Retherford shift
1947
Cecil Powell ,
César Lattes , and
Giuseppe Occhialini discover the
pi meson by studying cosmic ray tracks
1947
Richard Feynman presents
his propagator approach to quantum electrodynamics
[9]
1948
Hendrik Casimir predicts a rudimentary attractive
Casimir force on a parallel plate capacitor
1951
Martin Deutsch discovers
positronium
1952
David Bohm propose
his interpretation of quantum mechanics
1953
Robert Wilson observes
Delbruck scattering of 1.33
MeV gamma-rays by the electric fields of lead nuclei
1953 Charles H. Townes, collaborating with J. P. Gordon, and H. J. Zeiger, builds the first ammonia
maser
1954
Chen Ning Yang and
Robert Mills investigate a
theory of hadronic
isospin by demanding local
gauge invariance under
isotopic spin space rotations, the first non-Abelian
gauge theory
1955
Owen Chamberlain ,
Emilio Segrè ,
Clyde Wiegand , and
Thomas Ypsilantis discover the
antiproton
1956
Frederick Reines and
Clyde Cowan detect
antineutrino
1956
Chen Ning Yang and
Tsung Lee propose
parity violation by the
weak nuclear force
1956
Chien Shiung Wu discovers parity violation by the weak force in decaying cobalt
1957
Gerhart Luders proves the
CPT theorem
1957
Richard Feynman ,
Murray Gell-Mann ,
Robert Marshak , and
E.C.G. Sudarshan propose a vector/axial vector (VA)
Lagrangian for weak interactions.
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
1958
Marcus Sparnaay experimentally confirms the
Casimir effect
1959
Yakir Aharonov and
David Bohm predict the
Aharonov–Bohm effect
1960
R.G. Chambers experimentally confirms the Aharonov–Bohm effect
[16]
1961
Murray Gell-Mann and
Yuval Ne'eman discover the
Eightfold Way patterns, the
SU(3) group
1961
Jeffrey Goldstone considers the breaking of global phase symmetry
1962
Leon Lederman shows that the electron neutrino is distinct from the muon neutrino
1963
Eugene Wigner discovers the fundamental roles played by quantum symmetries in atoms and molecules
The formation and successes of the Standard Model
1964
Murray Gell-Mann and
George Zweig propose the
quark/aces model
[17]
[18]
1964
Peter Higgs considers the breaking of local phase symmetry
1964
John Stewart Bell shows that all local
hidden variable theories must satisfy
Bell's inequality
1964
Val Fitch and
James Cronin observe CP violation by the weak force in the decay of K mesons
1967
Steven Weinberg puts forth his electroweak model of
leptons
[19]
[20]
1969
John Clauser ,
Michael Horne ,
Abner Shimony and
Richard Holt propose a polarization correlation test of
Bell's inequality
1970
Sheldon Glashow ,
John Iliopoulos , and
Luciano Maiani propose the charm quark
1971
Gerard 't Hooft shows that the Glashow-Salam-Weinberg electroweak model can be renormalized
[21]
1972
Stuart Freedman and
John Clauser perform the first polarization correlation test of
Bell's inequality
1973
David Politzer and
Frank Anthony Wilczek propose the
asymptotic freedom of quarks
[18]
1974
Burton Richter and
Samuel Ting discover the
J/ψ particle implying the existence of the
charm quark
1974
Robert J. Buenker and
Sigrid D. Peyerimhoff introduce the
multireference configuration interaction method.
1975
Martin Perl discovers the
tau lepton
1977
Steve Herb finds the
upsilon resonance implying the existence of the
beauty/bottom quark
1982
Alain Aspect , J. Dalibard, and G. Roger perform a polarization correlation test of
Bell's inequality that rules out conspiratorial polarizer communication
1983
Carlo Rubbia ,
Simon van der Meer , and the CERN UA-1 collaboration find the
W and Z intermediate vector bosons
[22]
1989 The Z intermediate vector boson
resonance width indicates three
quark–lepton generations
1994 The
CERN
LEAR
Crystal Barrel Experiment justifies the existence of
glueballs (
exotic meson ).
1995 The
D0 and
CDF experiments at the
Fermilab
Tevatron discover the
top quark .
1998
Super-Kamiokande (Japan) observes evidence for
neutrino oscillations , implying that at least one neutrino has mass.
1999
Ahmed Zewail wins the Nobel prize in chemistry for his work on
femtochemistry for atoms and molecules.
[23]
2001 The
Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (Canada) confirms the existence of
neutrino oscillations .
2005 At the
RHIC accelerator of
Brookhaven National Laboratory they have created a quark–gluon liquid of very low viscosity, perhaps the
quark–gluon plasma
2010 The
Large Hadron Collider at
CERN begins operation with the primary goal of searching for the
Higgs boson .
2012
CERN announces the discovery of a new particle with properties consistent with the
Higgs boson of the
Standard Model after experiments at the
Large Hadron Collider .
See also
References
^ Narayan, Rupa (2013).
Space, Time and Anu in Vaisheshika (PDF) . Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, USA.
^ Teresi, Dick (2010).
Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science . Simon and Schuster. pp. 213–214.
ISBN
978-1-4391-2860-2 .
^
Jammer, Max (1966), The conceptual development of quantum mechanics , New York: McGraw-Hill,
OCLC
534562
^ Tivel, David E. (September 2012).
Evolution: The Universe, Life, Cultures, Ethnicity, Religion, Science, and Technology . Dorrance Publishing.
ISBN
9781434929747 .
^ Gilbert N. Lewis. Letter to the editor of Nature (Vol. 118, Part 2, December 18, 1926, pp. 874–875).
^
The origin of the word "photon"
^
The Davisson–Germer experiment, which demonstrates the wave nature of the electron
^ A. Abragam and B. Bleaney. 1970. Electron Parmagnetic Resonance of Transition Ions, Oxford University Press: Oxford, U.K., p. 911
^ Feynman, R.P. (2006) [1985].
QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter .
Princeton University Press .
ISBN
0-691-12575-9 .
^ Richard Feynman; QED . Princeton University Press: Princeton, (1982)
^ Richard Feynman; Lecture Notes in Physics . Princeton University Press: Princeton, (1986)
^
Feynman, R.P. (2001) [1964].
The Character of Physical Law .
MIT Press .
ISBN
0-262-56003-8 .
^ Feynman, R.P. (2006) [1985].
QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter .
Princeton University Press .
ISBN
0-691-12575-9 .
^ Schweber, Silvan S.; Q.E.D. and the men who made it: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga, Princeton University Press (1994)
ISBN
0-691-03327-7
^ Schwinger, Julian; Selected Papers on Quantum Electrodynamics, Dover Publications, Inc. (1958)
ISBN
0-486-60444-6
^ *Kleinert, H. (2008).
Multivalued Fields in Condensed Matter, Electrodynamics, and Gravitation (PDF) .
World Scientific .
ISBN
978-981-279-170-2 .
^ Yndurain, Francisco Jose; Quantum Chromodynamics: An Introduction to the Theory of Quarks and Gluons , Springer Verlag, New York, 1983.
ISBN
0-387-11752-0
^
a
b
Frank Wilczek (1999) "
Quantum field theory ", Reviews of Modern Physics 71: S83–S95. Also doi=10.1103/Rev. Mod. Phys. 71.
^ Weinberg, Steven; The Quantum Theory of Fields: Foundations (vol. I), Cambridge University Press (1995)
ISBN
0-521-55001-7 . The first chapter (pp. 1–40) of Weinberg's monumental treatise gives a brief history of Q.F.T., pp. 608.
^ Weinberg, Steven; The Quantum Theory of Fields: Modern Applications (vol. II), Cambridge University Press:Cambridge, U.K. (1996)
ISBN
0-521-55001-7 , pp. 489.
^ *
Gerard 't Hooft (2007) "
The Conceptual Basis of Quantum Field Theory " in Butterfield, J., and
John Earman , eds., Philosophy of Physics, Part A . Elsevier: 661-730.
^ Pais, Abraham; Inward Bound: Of Matter & Forces in the Physical World, Oxford University Press (1986)
ISBN
0-19-851997-4 Written by a former Einstein assistant at Princeton, this is a beautiful detailed history of modern fundamental physics, from 1895 (discovery of X-rays) to 1983 (discovery of vectors bosons at C.E.R.N.)
^
"Press Release: The 1999 Nobel Prize in Chemistry" . 12 October 1999. Retrieved 30 June 2013 .
External links