Traditional sound-based art forms developed by sub-Saharan African peoples
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In many parts of sub-Saharan Africa, the use of music is not limited to entertainment: it serves a purpose to the local community and helps in the conduct of daily routines. Traditional African music supplies appropriate music and dance for work and for religious ceremonies of birth, naming, rites of passage, marriage and funerals.[1] The beats and sounds of the drum are used in communication as well as in cultural expression.[2]
African dances are largely participatory: there are traditionally no barriers between dancers and onlookers except with regard to spiritual, religious and initiation dances. Even ritual dances often have a time when spectators participate.[3] Dances help people work, mature, praise or criticize members of the community, celebrate festivals and funerals, compete, recite history, proverbs and poetry and encounter gods.[4] They inculcate social patterns and values. Many dances are performed by only males or females.[5] Dances are often segregated by gender, reinforcing gender roles in children. Community structures such as kinship, age, and status are also often reinforced.[6] To share rhythm is to form a group consciousness, to
entrain with one another,[7] to be part of the collective rhythm of life to which all are invited to contribute.[8]
Yoruba dancers and drummers, for instance, express communal desires, values, and collective creativity. The drumming represents an underlying linguistic text that guides the dancing performance, allowing linguistic meaning to be expressed non-verbally. The spontaneity of these performances should not be confused with an improvisation that emphasizes the individual ego. The drummer's primary duty is to preserve the community.[9] Master dancers and drummers are particular about the learning of the dance exactly as taught. Children must learn the dance exactly as taught without variation. Improvisation or a new variation comes only after mastering the dance, performing, and receiving the appreciation of spectators and the sanction of village elders.[10]
The music of the Luo, for another example, is functional, used for ceremonial, religious, political or incidental purposes, during funerals (Tero buru) to praise the departed, to console the bereaved, to keep people awake at night, to express pain and agony and during cleansing and chasing away of spirits, during beer parties (Dudu, ohangla dance), welcoming back the warriors from a war, during a wrestling match (
Ramogi), during courtship, in rain making and during divination and healing. Work songs are performed both during communal work like building, weeding, etc. and individual work like pounding of cereals, winnowing.
Regions
Alan P. Merriam divided Africa into seven regions for ethnomusicological purposes, observing current political frontiers (see map), and this article follows this division as far as possible in surveying the music of
ethnic groups in Africa.
The
music of Sudan(turquoise on the map) indicates the difficulty of dividing music traditions according to state frontiers. The musicology of Sudan involves some 133 language communities.[11] that speak over 400 dialects,[12] Afro-Asian, Nilotic and Niger–Congo.
Sudan takes its name from that of the sub-Saharan savanna which makes, with the
Nile, a great cross-roads of the region. South of the Sahara the Sahel forms a
bio-geographic zone of transition between the desert and the
Sudanian savannas, stretching between the
Atlantic Ocean and the
Red Sea. The
Nilotic peoples prominent in
southern Sudan, Uganda, Kenya, and northern Tanzania, include the
Luo,
Dinka,
Nuer and
Maasai.[13] Many of these have been included in the Eastern region.
The
Dinka are a mainly agro-pastoral people inhabiting the
Bahr el Ghazal region of the Nile basin,
Jonglei and parts of southern
Kordufan and
Upper Nile regions. They number around 1.5 million, about 10% of the population.[14] of Sudan.
The
SenegambianFula have migrated as far as Sudan at various times, often speaking Arabic as well as their own language. The
Hausa people, who speak a
language related to
Ancient Egyptian and
Biblical Hebrew, have moved in the opposite direction. Further west the
Berber music of the
Tuareg has penetrated to Sub-Saharan countries. These are included in the Western region, but the music of Sub-Saharan herders and nomads is heard from west to east.
Western, central, eastern and southern territories
These remaining four regions are most associated with Sub-Saharan African music: familiar African musical elements such as the use of
cross-beat and
vocal harmony may be found all over all four regions, as may be some instruments such as the iron bell. This is largely due to the
expansion of the
Niger–Congo-speaking people that began around 1500 BC: the last phases of expansion were 0–1000 AD.[15][16][17] Only a few scattered languages in this great area cannot readily be associated with the Niger–Congo language family. However two significant non-Bantu musical traditions, the
Pygmy music of the Congo jungle and that of the
bushmen of the
Kalahari, do much to define the music of the central region and of the southern region respectively.
Inland and coastal languages are only distantly related. While the north, with its griot traditions, makes great use of stringed instruments and
xylophones, the south relies much more upon drum sets and communal singing.
Northern
Complex societies existed in the region from about 1500 BCE. The
Ghana Empire[19] existed from before c. 830 until c. 1235 in what is now south-east
Mauritania and western
Mali. The
Sosso people had their capital at
Koumbi Saleh until
Sundiata Keita defeated them at the
Battle of Kirina (c. 1240) and began the
Mali Empire, which spread its influence along the
Niger River through numerous
vassal kingdoms and provinces. The
Gao Empire at the eastern Niger bend was powerful in the ninth century CE but later subordinated to Mali until its decline. In 1340 the
Songhai people made Gao the capital of a new
Songhai Empire.[20]
The
Hausa people are one of the largest
ethnic groups in
Nigeria,
Niger,
Sudan and many West and Central African countries. They speak a
Chadic language. There are two broad categories of traditional
Hausa music; rural folk music and urban court music developed in the
Hausa Kingdoms before the
Fulani War. Their folk music has played an important part in
Nigerian music, contributing elements such as the
goje, a one-stringed
fiddle.
The originally nomadic/pastoral Senegambian
Fula people or
Tukulor represent 40% of the population of
Guinea and have spread to surrounding states and as far as
Sudan in the east.[21] In the 19th century they overthrew the Hausa and established the
Sokoto Caliphate. The Fula play a variety of traditional instruments including drums, the hoddu (xalam), a plucked skin-covered lute similar to a banjo, and riti or riiti (a one-string bowed instrument similar to a violin), in addition to their vocal music. They also use end-blown bamboo flutes. Their griots are known as gawlo.[22]
Mande music: the
music of Mali is dominated by forms derived from the Mande Empire Their musicians, professional performers called
jeliw (sing. jeli, French griot), have produced popular alongside traditional music.
Mande languages include
Mandinka,
Soninke,
Bambara,
Bissa,
Dioula,
Kagoro,
Bozo,
Mende,
Susu,
Vai and
Ligbi: there are populations in Burkina Faso, Mauritania, Senegal, The Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone and Liberia and, mainly in the northern inland regions, in the south coast states of Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin and Nigeria.
In
Senegal,
The Gambia and
Guinea-Bissau the
Jola are notable for their stringed instrument the akonting, a precursor of the
banjo while the
Balanta people, the largest ethnic group of Guinea-Bissau, play a similar gourd lute instrument called a kusunde or kussundé,[24] with a short A♯/B drone string at the bottom, a top F♯ string of middle length and a middle C♯ string, the longest. Top string stopped gives G♯, middle string stopped is D♯.
Songhai music, as interpreted by
Ali Farka Toure, has gathered international interest for a minor pentatonic lute-and-voice style that is markedly similar to American blues.
Among
Gur-speaking peoples the
Dagomba use the lunga talking drum and a bass drum with
snares called a gungon, as well as the flute, gonje (goje) and bell.[26] as well as molo (xalam) lute music, also played by
Gurunsi peoples such as the
Frafra. Similar styles are practised by local Fulani, Hausa,
Djerma,
Busanga and
Ligbi speaking people. Drummers in Dagbon are storytellers, historians,
bards of family ancestry who perform at events called sambanlunga.[27]
The
Gurunsi, the
Lobi, the
Wala and the related
Dagaaba people of Ghana and Burkina Faso and are known for complex interlocking (double meter) patterns on the xylophone (gyil).
The
Akan people include the
Akwamu,
Bono,
Akyem,
Fante,
Ashanti,[30] who originated the
Adowa and kete styles, the
Baoulé whose
polyphonic music introduced the gbébé rhythm to Ivory Coast,[25] the
Nzema people who play the edengole. Akan peoples have complex court music including the atumpan and Ga
kpanlogo style, a modernized traditional dance and music form, developed around 1960.
Yacub Addy,
Obo Addy, and
Mustapha Tettey Addy are Ga drummers who have achieved international fame. A huge log xylophone is used in asonko music. The 10–14 string Ghanaian seprewa, midway between the kora and the
African harp, is still played but often replaced by guitar. Other styles include; adaha, agbadza, akwete,
ashiko and gombe as well as konkomba, mainline, osibisaba and sikyi. Instrumentation includes the aburukawa, apentemma, dawuro and torowa.
The related
Aja people are native to south-western Benin and south-eastern Togo. Aja living in Abomey mingled with the local tribe, thus creating the
Fon or Dahomey ethnic group, now the largest in Benin. Tchinkoumé.[31]
Yoruba music is prominent in the
music of Nigeria and in Afro-Latin and Caribbean musical styles. Ensembles using the
talking drum play a type of music that is called dundun after the drum,[32] using various sizes of tension drum along with special band drums (ogido). The leader or oniyalu uses the drum to "talk" by imitating the
tonality of
Yoruba language. Yoruba music traditionally centred on folklore and spiritual/deity worship, utilising basic and natural instruments such as handclaps. Professional musicians were referred to by the derogatory term of Alagbe.
Igbo music informs
Highlife and
Waka. The drum is the most important musical instrument for the Igbo people, used during celebrations, rites of passage, funerals, war, town meetings and other events, and the pot-drum or udu (means "pot") is their most common and popular drum:[33] a smaller variant is called the kim-kim.[34] Igbo Styles include egwu ota. Other instruments:
obo – ufie –
ogene,[35] a flat metal pan used as a bell.
The
Kasena use a
hocket vocal style. Other styles are; jongo, len yoro. Instruments include; gullu, gungonga, korbala, kornia, sinyegule, wua and yong wui.[37]
The central region of African music is defined by the tropical rain-forests at the heart of the continent. However Chad, the northernmost state, has a considerable subtropical and desert northern region.
Northern traditions
The north of this region has Nilo-Saharans such as the
Zande people. Early kingdoms were founded near
Lake Chad: the
Kanem Empire, ca. 600 BCE – 1380 CE[41] encompassed much of Chad,
Fezzan, east
Niger and north-east
Nigeria, perhaps founded by the nomadic
Zaghawa, then ruled by the
Sayfawa dynasty. The
Bornu Empire (1396–1893) was a continuation, the
Kanembu founding a new state at
Ngazargamu. These spoke the
Kanuri languages spoken by some four million people in Nigeria, Niger, Chad, Cameroon, Libya and Sudan. They are noted for lute and drum music. The
Kingdom of Baguirmi (1522–1897) and the
Ouaddai Empire (1635–1912) were also centred near Lake Chad.
The
Toubou, who live mainly in the north of
Chad around the
Tibesti mountains and also in
Libya,
Niger and
Sudan, are semi-nomadic herders, Nilo-Saharan speakers, mostly
Muslim, numbering roughly 350,000. Their folk music revolves around men's string instruments like the
keleli and women's vocal music.[42]
Horns and trumpets such as the long royal trumpet, a tin
horn known as
waza or kakaki are used in
coronations and other upper-class ceremonies throughout both Chad and
Sudan.[44] Other traditional Chadian instruments include the
hu hu (
string instrument with
calabash resonators),
maracas. The
griot tradition uses the
kinde (a five-string bow harp).
The
Pygmy peoples have high levels of genetic diversity,[45] yet are extremely divergent from all other human populations, suggesting they have an ancient indigenous lineage, the most ancient divergence after the Southern African
Bushmen. It is estimated that there are between 250,000 and 600,000 Pygmies living in the Congo rainforest,[46] Most Pygmy communities dwell in tropical forests.[47] with populations in
Rwanda,
Burundi,
Uganda, the
Democratic Republic of the Congo, the
Central African Republic,
Cameroon,
Equatorial Guinea,
Gabon, the
Republic of Congo,
Angola,
Botswana,
Namibia, and
Zambia.[48] As partial
hunter-gatherers, living partially but not exclusively on the wild products of their environment, they trade with neighbouring farmers to acquire cultivated foods and other material items.[48] There are several Pygmy groups, the best known being the Mbenga (Aka and Baka) of the western
Congo basin, the Mbuti (Efe etc.) of the
Ituri Rainforest, and the Twa of the
Great Lakes.
Pygmy music Includes the Aka, Baka, Mambuti Mbuti and Efé; styles:
hindewhu –
hocket – likanos –
liquindi – lullaby –
yelli. Instrumentation =
flute – ieta – limbindi – molimo – ngombi –
trumpet –
whistle. Other = boona –
elima – jengi – molimo[49] The African Pygmies are particularly known for their usually vocal music, typically characterised by dense contrapuntal communal improvisation.[50] Music permeates daily life and there are songs for entertainment as well as specific events and activities.
Bemba people of Zambia. (or 'BaBemba' using the Ba- prefix to mean 'people of', and also called 'Awemba' or 'BaWemba' in the past) belong to a large group of peoples mainly in the
Northern,
Luapula and
Copperbelt Provinces of
Zambia who trace their origins to the Luba and Lunda states of the upper
Congo basin, in what became
Katanga Province in southern
Congo-Kinshasa (DRC). There are over 30 Bemba clans, named after animals or natural organisms, such as the royal clan, "the people of the crocodile" (Bena Ng'andu) or the Bena Bowa (Mushroom Clan). The
Bemba language (Chibemba) is related to the
Bantu languages Kaonde (in Zambia and the DRC), Luba (in the DRC), Nsenga and Tonga (in Zambia), and Nyanja/
Chewa (in Zambia and Malawi). It is mainly spoken in the Northern, Luapula and Copperbelt Provinces, and has become the most widely spoken African language in the country, although not always as a first language. Bemba numbered 250,000 in 1963 but a much larger population includes some 'eighteen different ethnic groups' who, together with the Bemba, form a closely related ethno-linguistic cluster of matrilineal-matrifocal agriculturalists known as the Bemba-speaking peoples of Zambia. Instrumentation = babatone –
kalela[52]
East Africa
The East African musicological region, which includes the islands of the Indian Ocean,
Madagascar,
Réunion,
Mauritius,
Comor and
the Seychelles, has been open to the influence of
Arabian and
Iranian music since the
Shirazi Era. In the south of the region
Swahili culture has adopted instruments such as the dumbek,
oud and qanun – even the Indian
tabla drums.[53] The kabosy, also called the mandoliny, a small guitar of Madagascar, like the Comorian gabusi, may take its name from the Arabian qanbūs. Taarab, a modern genre popular in Tanzania and Kenya, is said to take both its name and its style from Egyptian music as formerly cultivated in
Zanzibar. Latterly there have been European influences also: the
guitar is popular in
Kenya, the
contredanse,
mazurka and
polka are danced in the Seychelles.[54]
Northern traditions
The
Luo peoples inhabit an area that stretches from
Southern Sudan and
Ethiopia through northern
Uganda and eastern
Congo (DRC), into western
Kenya and
Tanzania and include the
Shilluk,
Acholi,
Lango and
Joluo (Kenyan and Tanzanian Luo). Luo
Benga music derives from the traditional music of the nyatiti lyre:[55] the Luo-speaking
Acholi of northern Uganda use the
adungu.[56] Rhythms are characterized by syncopation and acrusis. Melodies are lyrical, with vocal ornamentations, especially when the music carries an important message. Songs are call-and-response or solo performances such as chants, recitatives with irregular rhythms and phrases which carried serious messages. Luo dances such as the dudu were introduced by them. A unique characteristic is the introduction of another chant at the middle of a musical performance. The singing stops, the pitch of the musical instruments go down and the dance becomes less vigorous as an individual takes up the performance in self-praise. This is called pakruok. A unique kind of ululation, sigalagala, mainly done by women, marks the climax of the musical performance. Dance styles are elegant and graceful, involving the movement of one leg in the opposite direction to the waist or vigorous shaking of the shoulders, usually to the nyatiti. Adamson (1967) commented that Luos clad in their traditional costumes and ornaments deserve their reputation as the most picturesque people in Kenya. During most of their performances the Luo wore costumes; sisal skirts (owalo), beads (Ombulu / tigo) worn around the neck and waist and red or white clay used by the ladies. The men's costumes included kuodi or chieno, a skin worn from the shoulders or from the waist. Ligisa headgear, shield and spear, reed hats and clubs were made from locally available materials. Luo musical instruments range from percussion (drums, clappers, metal rings, ongeng'o or gara, shakers), nyatiti, a type of lyre; orutu, a type of fiddle), wind (tung' a horn, Asili, a flute, Abu-!, to a specific type of trumpet. In the benga style of music. the guitar (acoustic, later electric) replaced the nyatiti as the string instrument. Benga is played by musicians of many tribes and is no longer considered a purely Luo style.
The
Music and dance of the Maasai people used no instruments in the past because as semi-nomadic Nilotic pastoralists instruments were considered too cumbersome to move. Traditional Maasai music is strictly
polyphonicvocal music, a group chanting polyphonic rhythms while soloists take turns singing verses. The
call and response that follows each verse is called namba. Performances are often competitive and divided by age and gender. The neighbouring
Turkana people have maintained their ancient traditions, including call and response music, which is almost entirely vocal. A horn made from the
kudu antelope is also played. The
Samburu are related to the Maasai, and like them, play almost no instruments except simple pipes and a kind of guitar. There are also erotic songs sung by women praying for rain.
The
Borana live near the
Ethiopian border, and their music reflects
Ethiopian,
Somali and other traditions. They are known also for using the
chamonge guitar,[57] which is made from a cooking pot strung with metal wires.
The
Kikuyu are one of the largest and most urbanized communities in Kenya. At the Riuki cultural center in Nairobi traditional songs and dances are still performed by local women, including music for initiations, courting, weddings, hunting, and working. The Kikuyu, like their neighbours the
Embu and the
Meru are believed to have migrated from the Congo Basin. Meru people like the Chuka, who live near
Mount Kenya, are known for
polyrhythmicpercussion music.
The Buganda are a large southern Ugandan population with well-documented musical traditions. The
akadinda, a xylophone, as well as several types of drum, is used in the courtly music of the Kabaka or king. Much of the music is based on playing interlocking
ostinato phrases in parallel octaves. Other instruments; engelabi, ennanga or (
inanga, a harp), entenga. Dance – baksimba.
The
music of Rwanda and
Burundi is mainly that of the closely related
Tutsi/Watusi and
Hutu/Bahutu people. The
Royal Drummers of Burundi perform music for
ceremonies of birth, funeral and
coronation of mwami (kings).
Sacred drums (called
karyenda) are made from hollowed tree trunks covered with animal skins. In addition to the central drum, Inkiranya, the Amashako drums provide a continuous beat and Ibishikiso drums follow the rhythm established by the Inkiranya. Dancers may carry ornamental
spears and
shields and lead the procession with their dance. Instrumentation;
ikembe –
inanga – iningiri –
umuduri – ikondera – ihembe – urutaro. Dances:
ikinimba – umushayayo – umuhamirizo – imparamba – inkaranka – igishakamba – ikinyemera[60]
The ng'oma drumming of
Gogo women of Tanzania and Mozambique, like that of the ngwayi dance of northeastern Zambia, uses "interlocking" or antiphonal rhythms that feature in many Eastern African instrumental styles such as the xylophone music of the Makonde dimbila, the Yao mangolongondo or the Shirima mangwilo, on which the opachera, the initial
caller, is responded to by another player, the wakulela.[65]
The
Chopi people of the coastal
Inhambane Province are known for a unique kind of
xylophone called mbila (pl: timbila) and the
style of music played with it, which "is believed to be the most sophisticated method of composition yet found among preliterate peoples."[66] Ensembles consist of around ten xylophones of four sizes and accompany ceremonial
dances with long compositions called ngomi which consist of an overture and ten movements of different
tempos and styles. The ensemble leader serves as
poet,
composer,
conductor, and
performer, creating a text, improvising a
melody partially based on the features of the Chopi's
tone language, and composing a second
countrapuntal line. The musicians of the ensemble partially
improvise their parts according to style, instrumental
idiom, and the leader's indications. The composer then consults with the
choreographer of the ceremony and adjustments are made.[67]Chopi styles:
timbala. Instruments:
kalimba –
mbila –
timbila – valimba – xigovia – xipala-pala – xipendane – xitende – xizambe[68]Chopi languages include
Tonga.
Tonga dance = mganda[69]
The
Kamba people are known for their complex
percussion music and spectacular performances, dances that display athletic skills resemble those of the
Tutsi and the
Embu. Dances are usually accompanied by songs composed for the occasion and sung on a
pentatonic scale. The Akamba also have work songs. Their music is divided into several groups based on age: Kilumi is a dance for mainly elderly women and men performed at healing and rain-making ceremonies, Mbeni for young and acrobatic girls and boys, Mbalya or Ngutha is a dance for young people who meet to entertain themselves after the day's chores are done, Kyaa for the old men and women.Kiveve, Kinze etc. In the Kilumi dance the drummer, usually female, plays sitting on a large mwase drum covered with goatskin at one end and open at the other. The drummer is also the lead singer. Mwali (pl: Myali) is a dance accompanying a song usually made to criticize anti-social behaviour: Mwilu is a circumcision dance.
The
Gusii people use an enormous
lute called the
obokano and the
ground bow,[57] made by digging a large hole in the ground, over which an animal skin is pegged. A small hole is cut into the skin and a single string placed across the hole.[dubious –
discuss]
The
Mijikenda (literally "the nine tribes") are found on the coast of Tanzania, Kenya and Southern Somalia. They have a vibrant folk tradition perhaps due to less influence from
Christianmissionaries. Their music is mostly
percussion-based and extremely complex.
Taarab is a mixture of influences from Arabic, Indian and Mijikenda music found in the coastal regions of Kenya, Zanzibar, Pemba and the islands off East Africa.
The
Bajuni people live primarily in the
Lamu islands and also in
Mombasa and
Kilifi. The Bajuni women's
work song "Mashindano Ni Matezo" is very well known.
Bushmen Also Basarwa, Khoe, Khwe, San, !Kung. The
Khoisan (also spelled Khoesaan, Khoesan or Khoe-San) is a unifying name for two
ethnic groups of
Southern Africa who share physical and putative linguistic characteristics distinct from the
Bantu majority of the region,[71] the
foragingSan and the
pastoralKhoi. The San include the original inhabitants of Southern Africa before the southward
Bantu migrations from Central and East Africa reached their region. Khoi pastoralists apparently arrived in Southern Africa shortly before the Bantu. Large Khoi-san populations remain in several arid areas in the region, notably in the
Kalahari Desert. Styles=
hocket[72]
The
Ovambo people number roughly 1,500,000 and consist of a number of kindred groups that inhabit
Ovamboland in northern
Namibia, forming about half of that state's population, as well as the southernmost
Angolan province. Shambo, a traditional dance music, blended Ovambo music previously popularised by folk guitarist Kwela, Kangwe Keenyala, Boetie Simon, Lexington and Meme Nanghili na Shima with a dominant guitar, rhythm guitar, percussion and a heavy "talking"
bassline. The
Herero, with about 240,000 members, mostly in
Namibia, the remainder living in
Botswana and
Angola speak a similar language, as do the
Himba people. Herero people oviritje, also known as konsert, has become popular in Namibia. The
Damara are genetically Bantu but speak the "click" language of the bushmen. Ma/gaisa or Damara Punch is a popular dance music genre that derives from their traditional music.
Goonji/Gonjey/Goge – Traditional one stringed-fiddle played by a majority of other sahelian groups in West Africa.
Gungon – Bass snare drum of the Lunsi ensemble. Of northern origin, it is played throughout Ghana by various groups, known by southern groups as brekete. Related to the
Dunun drums of other West African peoples.
Gyil – large resonant Xylophones, related to the
Balafon.
Koloko – Varieties of
Sahelian lute. Varieties include the one-stringed 'Kolgo/Koliko' of
Gur-speaking groups, the two-stringed 'Molo' of the
Zabarma and Fulani minorities, or the two-stringed 'Gurumi' of the
Hausa.
Lunna/Kalangu – Varieties of Hourglass-shaped Talking drums.
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abLima, Conceução and Caroline Shaw, "Island Music of Central Africa" in the Rough Guide to World Music, pp. 613–616
^
abManuel, Popular Musics, p. 96; Máximo, Susana and David Peterson, "Music of Sweet Sorrow" in the Rough Guide to World Music, pp. 448–457
^Turino, pp. 170–171; Abram, Dave, "Sounds from the African Rainforest" in the Rough Guide to World Music, pp. 601–607; Karolyi, p. 24
^African Rhythms (2003). Music by
Aka Pygmies, performed by Aka Pygmies,
György Ligeti and
Steve Reich, performed by
Pierre-Laurent Aimard. Teldec Classics: 8573 86584-2. Liner notes by Aimard, Ligeti, Reich, and Simha Arom and Stefan Schomann.
^
abTurino, pp. 179, 182; Sandahl, Sten, "Exiles and Traditions" in the Rough Guide to World Music, pp. 698–701
^
abcPaterson, Doug, "The Life and Times of Kenyan Pop" in the Rough Guide to World Music, pp. 509–522
^Turino, pp. 179, 182; Sandahl, Sten, "Exiles and Traditions" in the Rough Guide to World Music, pp. 698–701; Koetting, James T., "Africa/Ghana" in Worlds of Music, pp. 67–105;
World Music CentralArchived April 14, 2006, at the
Wayback Machine
^
abLwanda, John, and Ronnie Graham with Simon Kandela Tunkanya, "Sounds Afroma!" and "Evolution and Expression" in the Rough Guide to World Music, pp. 533–538,702–705
^
abJacquemin, Jean-Pierre, Jadot Sezirahigha and Richard Trillo, "Echoes from the Hills" in the Rough Guide to World Music, pp. 608–612
^Nettl, Bruno (1956). Music in Primitive Culture. Harvard University Press.
"Theory of Music". 3 July 2008.
Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2011-11-01.
^Paco, Celso, "A Luta Continua" in the Rough Guide to World Music, pp. 579–584; Karolyi, p. 32; Koetting, James T., "Africa/Ghana" in Worlds of Music, pp. 67–105
^
abcdefLwanda, John, "Sounds Afroma!" in the Rough Guide to World Music, pp. 533–538
^Manuel, Popular Musics, p. 112; Ewens, Graeme and Werner Graebner, "A Lightness of Touch" in the Rough Guide to World Music, pp. 111–112, 505–508
^Barnard, Alan (1992) Hunters and Herders of Southern Africa: A Comparative Ethnography of the Khoisan Peoples. New York; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
^Bensignor, François, "Sounds of the Sahel" in the Rough Guide to World Music, pp. 585–587
^Turino, p. 184; Bensignor, François and Ronnie Graham, "Sounds of the Sahel" and "From Hausa Music to Highlife" in the Rough Guide to World Music, pp. 585–587, 588–600
^Turino, p. 178; Collins, John, "Gold Coast: Highlife and Roots" in the Rough Guide to World Music, pp. 488–498
^Turino, pp. 172–173; Bensignor, François, Guus de Klein, and Lucy Duran, "Hidden Treasure", "The Backyard Beats of Gumbe" and "West Africa's Musical Powerhouse" in the Rough Guide to World Music, pp. 437–439, 499–504, 539–562; Manuel, Popular Musics, p. 95;
World Music CentralArchived February 7, 2006, at the
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References
Broughton, Simon; Mark Ellingham, eds. (2000). Rough Guide to World Music (First ed.). London: Rough Guides.
ISBN978-1-85828-636-5.
Nettl, Bruno (1965). Folk and Traditional Music of the Western Continents. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Fujie, Linda, James T. Koetting,
David P. McAllester, David B. Reck, John M. Schechter, Mark Slobin and R. Anderson Sutton (1992). Jeff Todd Titan (ed.). Worlds of Music: An Introduction to the Music of the World's Peoples (Second ed.). New York: Schirmer Books.
ISBN978-0-02-872602-1.{{
cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link)