According to
T. F. O'Rahilly, in his works Goides and Their Predecessors and later Early Irish History, there were a total of four waves of Celtic invasions of the British Isles and Ireland and that the first three of these were pre-Gaelic.[1][2] According to O'Rahilly, these were people who had largely remained unconquered by the
Romans whose territory was mostly restricted to the broad plains of
England. A larger part of England remained out of the control of the West Germanic people who invaded after the imperial collapse of
Roman Britain and who founded the English nation.[3]
O'Rahilly's version of the origins of the Irish, as supported by C. Thomas Cairney and John Grenham is as follows: The first of the Celtic invaders of Ireland were known as the
Cruthin who arrived between 800 and 500
BC.[3]
The second wave of Celts to come to Ireland were known as the
Erainn and this is supposedly where the Gaelic name for Ireland,
Erin, originated from. These people arrived between 500 and 100 BC. They came from the area which is today known as
Belgium and had superior iron weaponry, and thus eventually reduced the Irish Cruthin to tributary status. The third wave of Celtic settlement in Ireland came from
Continental Europe during the first century BC and this was probably because of pressure from the Romans on the south of
Gaul. These people were known as the
Dumnonii and gave their name to
Devon in England. Their most powerful branch in Ireland was the
Laigin who gave their name to
Leinster. A branch of the Irish group of the Dumnonii settled just to the south of
Dumbarton in
Scotland and were the ancestors of the
Strathclyde-Britons.[4]
The fourth and last major Celtic settlements in Ireland took place around 50 BC. This was directly because of Roman attempts to dominate the
Gauls of Continental Europe. This included, among others, a group known as the Feni who came to Ireland directly from the Continent and according to tradition landed in south
Kerry and the
Boyne estuary. The earlier inhabitants of the country fiercely resisted the newcomers who were referred to as the Gaeil because they spoke the
Gaelic language. The power and influence of the Gaeils gradually spread over the next three centuries, northwards, from Kerry into
Tipperary and
Limerick, as well as to the west into
Galway and
Roscommon. By the 5th century they were dominant in most of Ireland and had established dynasties and tribal groups. These groups determined the Irish politics and culture until the
Norman invasion of Ireland which took place during the late 12th century.[5]
Modern opinion
O'Rahilly's version of history has been questioned by archaeologists and historians who have played down the role of the Cruthin as invaders, including by
Ian Adamson.[6] O'Rahilly's history has been entirely unaccepted by some historians including
Francis John Byrne.[7] According to
Myles Dillon and
Nora K. Chadwick, while O'Rahilly's version of history has been accepted by some scholars and dismissed by others, it is an entirely traditional history that he had sourced from Lebor Gabála Érenn which was a historic manuscript written in the 11th century, also known as the Book of the Invasions of Ireland, and not historic facts based on contemporary evidence.[8]J. P. Mallory stated that O'Rahilly has argued that this manuscript showed that the
medieval people of Ireland had seen a series of invasions from whom various dynasties and families might have traced their origins to.[9]
According to Mallory, Ireland may have been inhabited by
Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) hunters, but that the evidence for this is only a few pieces of
flint.[10] The first actual evidence of human residence in Ireland dates to around 8000 BC.[11] Evidence of the first
Neolithic farmers in Ireland dates to around 4000 BC.[12] There is little evidence of a warrior elite in Ireland before 1500 BC and evidence for this appears during the
Bronze Age where everyone of a wealthy class had weaponry.[13] The Irish language first appeared from between 700/600 BC and 400
AD during the
Iron Age.[14] During this time, the Irish people came into contact with Roman traders.[15]
According to the writers of Ulster: An Illustrated History, there is evidence for the
Ulaid who are referred to as the
Erainn by some genealogists which is also the name given on
Ptolemy's map of Ireland which dates from the second century AD for the
Iverni who lived in
County Cork, as well as being the origin of the name for Ireland. The centre of the Ulaid's land was in the
Diocese of Down. The main population group of the Ulaid was the Cruthin whose territory was in the
Diocese of Connor and Dromore. There is also evidence for the Loiges in Leinster and the
Cíarraige in
Munster who also belong to this group and it is possible that their ancestors in Ireland were pre-Celtic.[16] The 11th century Lebor Gabála Érenn or Book of the Invasions of Ireland, describes a series of failed invasions of Ireland before settlement in the 8th century.[17] However, by the 8th century battles in Ireland were not between the natives and invaders but between tribes and dynasties for control of different parts of the island.[16]Donnchadh Ó Corráin put the evidence for the Irish naitional identity back to the 7th century emphasising the impact that
Christianity had on the people there.[18]
In 1002, the
Uí Néill lost the high kingship of Ireland to the leader of the
Dal gCais or
Dalcassians, Brian Boru. It was during the century of declining Uí Néill dominance that surnames first started being used in Ireland. This meant that Ireland was one of the first countries in Europe to start using surnames. Descendants of
Niall of the Nine Hostages include people with the surnames
O'Boyle,
O'Connor and
O'Donnell. From the Dal gCais or Dalcassians came the surnames
O'Brien and
Kennedy.[19]
Social structure
Within the Gaeil there was distinction between the tribes of the south from those of the north, and also from those of the west. The tribes in the south called themselves the
Eoghanacht and in about the year 400 AD they established at
Cashel a dynasty which held power throughout most of southern Ireland from the 5th to 12th centuries. The Munster families of
O'Sullivan,
MacCarthy and
O'Connell claim descent from the Eoghanacht.[5]
In the midlands of Ireland, the Gaeil tribes were known as
Connachta and their name continues in the modern province of
Connacht. The most important of the Connacta tribes was the Uí Néill who claimed descent from Niall of the Nine Hostages. Niall's brothers included
Ailill,
Brion and
Fiachra who were founders of the important Connachta tribes of Ui Ailella,
Uí Briúin and
Uí Fiachrach.[5]
Although the Eoghanacht and Uí Néill were the most powerful tribal groups in Ireland, there were others who were locally powerful including the
Oirialla in the north-east where they controlled what is now the counties of
Tyrone,
Armagh,
Fermanagh and
Monaghan. There was also the
Ulaidh who inhabited what is now the counties of
Down and
Antrim.[5]
Within these large areas there were up to 150 small divisions known as
Túath and the names of many of these are reflected today in the names of the
Irish baronies that make up the modern counties. Each Túath had a ruler or
petty king who owed allegiance to a more powerful king who was over-king of three or more Túath. This over-king would in turn be subordinate to the king of a province, usually either the Eoghanacht or Uí Néill.[5]
The succession of kings or chiefs was governed by a system known as
Tanistry whereby after a chief had died, the new chief would be elected from all paternal cousins descended from a patrilineal grandfather or great-grandfather.[20][21] However, the system known as Tanistry which also took place before the position of king or chief had become vacant is not found in records until the time of
feudalism in Ireland which was not until the time of the Normans, and it was preceded by the similar system known as Rigdomna but which took place only after the position of king or chief had become vacant.[21]
As per O'Rahilly's doctrine, the
Cruthin were the first Celts to settle in Ireland between about 800 and 500 BC.[22] In line with this, according to Cairney, from them descended the following Irish tribes:
The
Dal nAraide. Irish surnames that came from this tribe include:
O'Lynch, MacGenises, and
MacCartan. The latter two later became tributaries of the O'Neills.[23]
The
Soghain. Their chief was in later times known as
O'Mannin or Mannions and this has sometimes become Manning.[24]
As per O'Rahilly's doctrine, the
Erainn were the second wave of Celts to settle in Ireland between about 500 and 100 BC.[25] In line with this, according to Cairney, from them descended the following Irish tribes:
The Clann Choinleagain (or MacGifoyles). This was an ancient clan located in the territory of the
O'Carrols of Ely.[25]
As per O'Rahilly's doctrine, the
Dumnonii or
Laigin were the third wave of Celts to settle in Ireland during the first century BC.[36] In line with this, according to Cairney, from them descended the following Irish tribes:
The
Cianacht. Their chiefly families were the O'Connors of
Keenaght and the "race of
Luighne" or "
Lugh" which in turn included the chiefly families of
O'Hara and
O'Gara.[36]
The Dealbhna Eathra and
Delbhna Nuadat. Their chiefly families were the O'Hanlys,[36] MaCoghlans and O'Conrahys.[37]
The Saithne. Their chiefly family was the
O'Caseys.[37]
As per O'Rahilly's doctrine, the
Gaels or Gaeils were the fourth and final wave of Celtic settlement in Ireland which took place during the first century BC.[50] In line with this, according to Cairney, from them descended the following Irish tribes:
Cineal Chonaill. Their main chiefs were the O'Donnells of Tirconaill, but also included the O'Canannains or O'Canons, O'Muldonys, O'Mulderrys,
O'Friels,
O'Boyles, O'Cullinans, and
O'Dohertys.[55]
Cineal Cairbre. Their main chiefs were the
O'Brolans.[55]
Vikings and
Normans are ethically linked in ancestry from the 9th to 11th centuries and who raided and settled in Britain and Ireland. In Ireland the Vikings became completely Gaelicized and established the first towns. The Normans invaded and conquered England in 1066 and later had similar success invading Ireland in the late 12th century. The Normans were the first people to introduce the mounted
knight. In Ireland they were influenced just as much as they themselves influenced and have been described as having become "more Irish than the Irish".[59]
The following surnames are believed to have come to Ireland with the Norman invasion but are believed to have been of
Flemish origin:
Tobin,
Flemming,
Predergast.[60]
The following surnames are believed to have come to Ireland with the Norman invasion but are believed to have been of
Welsh origin:
Roche,
Blake,
Joyce,
MacQuillan,
Rice, Taffe,
Walsh, Savage.[60]
^Munro, Colin (December 2015).
"The Deep Ancestry of the Munros"(PDF). Newsletter of the Clan Munro (Association) Australia. Vol. 13, no. 3. Australia: Clan Munro (Association) Australia. pp. 4–5. Retrieved October 8, 2023.
Grenham, John (1993). Clans and Families of Ireland: The Heritage and Heraldry of Irish Clans and Families.
Gill and
Macmillan Publishers.
ISBN0717120325.
Ó Cléirigh, Cú Choigcríche (1951) [Written from original manuscript Ó Cléirigh Book of Genealogies which was written in the mid-seventeenth century]. Pender, Seamus (ed.). The O Clery Book of Genealogies. Dublin: Stationery Office.
^The chiefs of the Scottish clan of
Munro or Monro are traditionally descended from the O'Cahans of the Cineál Eoghain in Ireland.[55] However, a
Y-DNA study has shown that the Munro chiefs were paternally distantly related to the
O'Driscolls of
Cork.[57]
^The MacLachlans, Lamonts, MacSorleys, MacNeills, MacEwens, MacQueens, MacSweens are all Scottish clans who are believed to be descended from the Cineál Eoghain in Ireland.[55]
^The chiefs of the Scottish clan of
Ross are believed to be descended from the O'Beolans of the Cineál Eoghain in Ireland.[55]