Penitrem A (tremortin) is an indole-diterpenoid
mycotoxin produced by certain species of Aspergillus,
Claviceps, and Penicillium, which can be found growing on various plant species such as
ryegrass.[1] Penitrem A is one of many
secondary metabolites following the synthesis of
paxilline in Penicillium crostosum.[2] Penitrem A poisoning in humans and animals usually occurs through the consumption of contaminated foods by mycotoxin-producing species, which is then distributed through the body by the bloodstream.[2] It bypasses the
blood-brain barrier to exert its toxicological effects on the
central nervous system.[2] In humans, penitrem A poisoning has been associated with severe tremors,
hyperthermia,
nausea/
vomiting,
diplopia, and
bloody diarrhea.[2] In animals, symptoms of penitrem A poisoning has been associated with symptoms ranging from tremors, seizures, and hyperthermia to
ataxia and
nystagmus.[2]
Roquefortine C has been commonly detected in documented cases of penitrem A poisoning, making it a possible
biomarker for diagnoses.[3]
Mechanism of action
Penitrem A impairs GABAergic amino acid neurotransmission and antagonizes high-conductance
Ca2+-activated potassium channels in both humans and animals.[4] Impairment of the GABAergic amino acid neurotransmission comes with the spontaneous release of the excitatory amino acids
glutamate and
aspartate as well as the inhibitory neurotransmitter
γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA).[4] The sudden release of these neurotransmitters results in imbalanced GABAergic signalling, which gives rise to neurological disorders such as the tremors associated with penitrem A poisoning.[4]
Penitrem A also induces the production of
reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the
neutrophil granulocytes of humans and animals.[2] Increased ROS production results in tissue damage in the brain and other afflicted organs as well as hemorrhages in acute poisonings.[2]
Oxidoreductase catalyzes the reduction of paxilline's ketone and also adds a dimethylallyl group to its aromatic ring.[5]
Acetyltransferases catalyze the removal of the intermediate's lower right-hand hydroxyl group and reduce of one of the nearby methyl groups to a
methylene group.[5]
Oxidative-transformation enzyme catalyzes the addition of a hydroxyl group to the intermediate's dimethylallyl group. The dimethylallyl's double bond migrates down one carbon.[5]
Prenyltransferase catalyzes the formation of a dimethyl-cyclopentane and a
cyclobutane using the intermediate's aromatic ring-alcohol group.[5]
Oxidative-transformation enzyme catalyzes the formation of a
methylenecyclohexane using the intermediate's dimethyl-cyclopentane, forming secopenitrem D.[5]
Oxidative-transformation enzyme catalyzes the formation of a
cyclooctane using cyclobutane's
alcohol group and the carbon joining secopenitrem D's
cyclohexane and
cyclopentane, forming penitrem D.[5]
Oxidative-transformation enzyme catalyzes the addition a chlorine atom at penitrem D's aromatic ring, forming penitrem C.[5]
Oxidative-transformation enzyme catalyzes the formation of an
epoxide ring at penitrem C's
oxane-double bond, forming penitrem F.[5]
Oxidative-transformation enzyme catalyzes the addition of a hydroxyl group at the carbon joining penitrem F's methylenecyclohexane and cyclobutane, forming penitrem A.[5]
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abcdefgBerntsen, H.F; Bogen, I.L; Wigestrand, M.B; Fonnum, F; Walaas, S.I; Moldes-Anaya, A (2017-12-01). "The fungal neurotoxin penitrem A induces the production of reactive oxygen species in human neutrophils at submicromolar concentrations". Toxicology. 392: 64–70.
doi:
10.1016/j.tox.2017.10.008.
ISSN0300-483X.
PMID29037868.