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Turkish or Ottoman illumination refers to non-figurative painted or drawn decorative art found in manuscripts or on sheets in muraqqa. ^[1] In Turkish it is called “tezhip”, ^[2] meaning “ornamenting with gold”. The Classical Islamic style of manuscript illumination combines techniques from Turkish, Persian, and Arabic traditions. Illumination was central to the traditional arts of the Ottoman Turks, who developed a style of illumination distinct from earlier traditions. ^[3]

Manuscript illustration, such as the painting of the Ottoman miniature (taswir), ^[4] was a distinct process from manuscript illumination, and each process was thus carried out by an artist specially trained in that particular craft. ^[5]

Illumination design varies depending on the associated text. Poetic texts often featured decoration along the margins of the text block or interrupting columns of text. ^[6] Copies of the Qur'an from the Ottoman period in the 14th and 16th centuries feature fully decorated opening pages (levha or plate illumination), with subsequent pages only featuring illumination on the edges of the text block (koltuk illumination). ^[7]

Illumination techniques were used to decorate manuscripts of the Qur'an as well as other mediums such as decorative papers, book covers, textiles, ceramics, glass and wood panels, metal works, and architectural surfaces. ^[8] Manuscripts of the Qur'an and literary or historical works were illuminated in palace workshops or in private artists' workshops. Illuminated manuscripts were generally accessible to sultans because of their high production cost. ^[9] The production of illuminated works of art under royal or elite patronage contributed to the unity of style frequently observed in Turkish decorative arts. ^[10]

History

The art of illumination predates the advent of Islam in Turkish history. The first examples of illumination appear on wall paintings and book adornments by the Uygur Turks. ^[11] Illumination took hold in the 9th and 10th centuries as it was used to gild and adorn the margins of Qur'anic manuscripts. ^[12] Kufic manuscripts of this period began to incorporate more elaborate geometric decoration as both an act of religious devotion and a tool for facilitating the text's legibility. ^[13]

During the reign of the Seljuk Turks in the 13th and 14th centuries, illumination techniques spread across Central Asia and Asia Minor. ^[14] Illuminations of this period were characterized by geometric designs and motifs. Palace adornment workshops, set up during the reign of Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror, produced most examples of illumination. ^[15] Prominent artist Baba Naqqash led an ornamentation workshop established by Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror at Topkapi Palace, producing masterpieces while training new students in the art of illumination. ^[15]

Beginning in the 15th century, refined techniques in papermaking and page dyeing allowed for the incorporation of more varied colors in paper manuscripts. Pages could be decorated with gold dust or marbled using the abri technique imported from China. ^[16]

In the 16th century, the art of Ottoman illumination experienced its second peak since the reign of Sultan Mehmed II. The style of Classical Turkish Illumination emerged, while illumination began to be used more widely beyond book adornment, decorating forms of art such as weaving and ceramics. ^[17]

The 'Golden Age' of Ottoman illumination occurred during the reign of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, spanning from 1520 to 1566. Illumination was used to decorate royal edicts and insignias, book covers, heads of Qur'anic chapters, and end pages. Artists, working out of royal workshops, primarily utilized gold and navy blue ink. ^[18] Ottoman artists Shah Kulu of Bagdhad and his student, Karamemi, pioneered the naturalistic "Sazyolu" (reed) style, characterized by its vegetal forms. ^[19] Karamemi later introduced the "Halic work" style to Ottoman illumination tradition while serving as chief illuminist at the ornamentation workshop in the palace of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. ^[20]

The Tulip Period of illumination (1718-1730) was characterized by the incorporation of large flowers and bouquets into decoration, influenced by the styles of the French Rococo. ^[21] These three-dimensional and naturalistic floral designs and reflected the influence of cultural Westernization. ^[22]

The 19th century was a period a vast variety of styles. The European baroque and rococo styles were known and adopted by Ottoman illumination artists. Ahmed Efendi, Ali Ragip, Rashid, Ahmed Ataullah were the famous artists of the period. The introduction of printing press, paintings on toil and photography did not have as much negative influences as it did in the case of Ottoman miniature painting. This was because both people and the ruling elites in Ottoman Empire were eager to continue the tradition of illuminating religious texts that came not only as books (like illuminated Qurans) but also as plates to adorn and sanctify their houses and work places. In the 20th century, after the end of Ottoman Empire, the intelligentsia of the newly born Turkish Republic was under the influence of Western art and aesthetics. The Ottoman Book Arts were unfortunately estimated as not as arts but as outdated things of the past. After the Alphabet Reform in 1925 that abolished Ottoman-Arabic characters and adopted Latin alphabet to be used by the citizens of the Republic, Ottoman Calligraphy was doomed to be incomprehensible by the next generation. As Ottoman-Turkish Illumination Art had shared a common fate with Ottoman Calligraphy from the beginning of their history, both arts went through a period of crisis. But there were conservative intellectuals who valued all the Ottoman Book Arts as important artistic traditions that should be kept alive and transmitted to the next generations. Suheyl Unver, Rikkat Kunt, Muhsin Demironat, Ismail Hakki Altunbezer, and Feyzullah Dayigil were some of the intellectuals that played an important role in continuing the tradition of Ottoman/Turkish Illumination Art. With the foundation of Turkish Decorative Arts section within the Academy of Fine Arts, new generations of illumination artists were educated. Today there are many artists in the field of illumination. Some of them are Çiçek Derman, Gülnur Duran, Şahin İnalöz, Cahide Keskiner, Ülker Erke, Melek Anter and Münevver Üçer (all of whom are women).

Common Motifs

Beginning in the late 10th century, illumination became increasingly complex, with illuminators decorating parts of the manuscript beyond simply the text. Single or double frontispieces, also referred to as carpet pages, featured full-page illuminations employing geometric and vegetal motifs such as arabesques and palmettes. ^[23]

Geometric motifs were particularly common during the Seljuk Dynasty. ^[24] When different geometric forms such as squares, circles, triangles, and stars were combined into a singular motif, these designs were believed to signify infinity. ^[25]

Rumi is a commonly used ornamental motif originating in Central Asia and further developed by the Anatolian Seljuks. Rumi emerged through the stylization of animal wings, legs, and trunks, but evolved to take on many varied forms. ^[26]

Vegetal forms, including stylized leaves, stems and buds (such as the gonca, or unopened flower), were a common element of the khatai style of illumination. Khatai flowers are usually symmetrical on a vertical axis. Another common vegetal motif is the panch, or five-pointed foliation. These forms were often used in the center of a design. ^[27]

During the 15th century, under the patronage of the Timurid Empire, a more delicate style of illumination relying on cloud-chain motifs began to take hold. This movement replaced the Ilkhanid style of illumination popularized in Persia and Iraq and characterized by the extensive use of geometric patterns. ^[28]

The bulut or cloud motif is a stylized representation of a cloud's movement across the sky. The two main forms of the cloud motif are the free cloud and the aggregate cloud. Free clouds are drawn independently in a design, while aggregate clouds combine individual clouds with the incorporation of curved lines. ^[27] Aggregate cloud bands between medallion motifs were a characteristic feature of illumination during the reign of Bayezid II. ^[29]

Curved Munhani motifs were commonly used between the 11th and 15th centuries, particularly in the ornamentation of handwritten manuscripts. ^[27]

Shukufa or naturalist flower motifs were commonly employed in Ottoman illuminating from the 17th century onward. These motifs emerged alongside the rise of European Baroque and Rococo influences. This motif involves the stylization of different flowers, including the tulip, carnation, violet, and iris. ^[30]

The shamsa is a round form symbolizing the sun and light. These forms were commonly employed on the bound or inner covers of handwritten works. The shamsa motif could also be encircled by curvilinear or vegetal motifs, or overlapped with other geometric forms to resemble petals. ^[28]

The hilye is a calligraphic plaque including a written description of the Prophet Muhammad's physical characteristics and traits. The text of the hilye was often contained within an illuminated circular or rectangular cartouche. ^[31]

The Tughra is a symbol representing the insignia of the Sultan, often included at the top of an Ottoman imperial ferman or edict. Karamemi-style flowers were commonly used to decorate the insignia. ^[31]

References

Further reading

• Rogers, J. M. (2000). Empire of the Sultans : Ottoman art from the Khalili collection (4th ed.). Alexandria, Va.: Art Services International. ISBN  0-88397-132-1. OCLC  41165435.
• Turkish Culture Portal – Illumination