From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Opel Ampera)

Chevrolet Volt
(first generation)
A 4.5-meter-long liftback with Chevrolet badging and light cyan paint showcased from a front 3/4 perspective.
Overview
Manufacturer General Motors
Also called
  • Holden Volt
  • Opel Ampera
  • Vauxhall Ampera
ProductionNovember 2010 – May 2015
Model years2011–2015
AssemblyUnited States: Detroit, Michigan ( Detroit/Hamtramck Assembly)
Designer Bob Boniface
Body and chassis
Class Compact car
Body style5-door liftback
Layout Front-engine, front-wheel drive
Platform GM Delta II
Related Cadillac ELR
Powertrain
Engine1,398 cc (1.4 L) EcoFLEX LUU I4 (gasoline)
Electric motor2x permanent magnet motors [note 1]
Transmission1-speed Voltec 4ET50 Multi-mode electric transaxle
Hybrid drivetrain Series hybrid/ Parallel hybrid ( GM Voltec) [1]
Battery
  • 16.0 kWh lithium-ion (2011–2012)
  • 16.5 kWh lithium-ion (2013–2014)
  • 17.1 kWh lithium-ion (2015)
Range380 miles (610 km) ( EPA)
Electric range
  • 35 miles (56 km) (EPA; 2011–2012)
  • 38 miles (61 km) (EPA; 2013–2015)
Plug-in charging3.3 kW AC
Dimensions
Wheelbase2,685 mm (105.7 in)
Length4,498 mm (177.1 in)
Width1,788 mm (70.4 in)
Height1,438 mm (56.6 in)
Curb weight1,691–1,721 kg (3,729–3,794 lb) (Volt)
1,686–1,732 kg (3,717–3,818 lb) (Ampera)
Chronology
Successor Chevrolet Volt (second generation)

The Chevrolet Volt is a compact car that was produced by General Motors. The first generation of the Chevrolet Volt, it was manufactured at the Detroit facility until it was succeeded by the second and final generation of the Volt in 2015. It is a five-door liftback with a range-extending generator.

In 2006, under the direction of GM Vice President Robert Lutz, General Motors began development of a car to rebuild their "environmentally-friendly, technologically advanced" image following the setback of the unsuccessful EV1 program. [2] The project sought to establish a new family of common powertrain components for electric propulsion, known as the "E-Flex Systems" or "Voltec". This powertrain was versatile enough to accommodate various electricity-generating systems, such as gasoline, diesel, ethanol, or fuel cell-powered engines. A lithium-ion battery pack with a 16 kWh energy storage capacity was selected to provide a target all-electric range of 40 miles (64 km). The Volt concept car became the first application of the E-Flex propulsion system. This drivetrain comprises an electric motor, a lithium-ion battery pack, and a genset with a small combustion engine.

Official series manufacture of the car at the Detroit/Hamtramck Assembly began on November 30, 2010. In place of the "Chevrolet Volt" nameplate, the Australasian markets Holden Volt, which was produced between 2012 and 2015. In numerous European markets, the Opel/Vauxhall Ampera was introduced, featuring various visual modifications to differentiate it from the Volt. Nevertheless, the Chevrolet Volt continued to be sold in Europe, albeit in lower volumes.

The Chevrolet Volt functions as a battery electric vehicle until its battery capacity diminishes to a predefined threshold from full charge. At that point, its internal combustion engine activates an electric generator to extend the vehicle's range as necessary. During high-speed operation on gasoline, the engine may be mechanically linked to a generator set through a clutch, improving efficiency by 10% to 15%. The Volt's regenerative braking system also contributes to on-board electricity generation.

Terminology

According to the Society of Automotive Engineers' (SAE) definition of a hybrid vehicle, they are characterized by the presence of "two or more energy storage systems, both of which must provide propulsion power, either together or independently". [3] [4] General Motors has refrained from using the term "hybrid" in reference to its Voltec designs, even following the disclosure that, in certain instances, the combustion engine offers assistance at very high speeds. This contribution from the gas engine is limited to high-speed scenarios, as during normal driving, there is no such facilitation, and the vehicle operates solely on electric power. [5] General Motors instead describes the Volt as an electric vehicle equipped with a " range extender" gasoline-powered internal combustion engine (ICE) functioning as a genset and calls it an "extended range electric vehicle". [6] [7] In a January 2011 interview, Pamela Fletcher, the Global Chief Engineer of the Chevrolet Volt, described it as "an electric car with extended range". [8]

The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) states that the Volt qualifies as a plug-in hybrid vehicle due to its combination of an internal combustion engine, two electric motors, and a battery capable of accepting off-board energy. [9] [4] Functioning as a plug-in hybrid, the Volt can operate as a purely electric vehicle for the first 25 to 50 miles (40 to 80 km) in charge-depleting mode. When the battery capacity drops below a pre-established threshold from full charge, the vehicle enters charge-sustaining mode. In this mode, the Volt's control system selects the most efficient combination of its two electric motors—one powered by the propulsion system battery pack reserve and one by the combustion generator—to enhance performance and boost high-speed efficiency. [9] [10]

Design and development

Concept vehicle

"When the car's cover was removed, I remember thinking I really didn't care what sort of power source might be inside this compact sedan. I liked the car's design and hoped it would find its way to the road as quickly as possible. But the big news wasn't the package, it was the powertrain. This stunning vehicle was designed to showcase a technology that General Motors promised would be a significant step in weaning America and its motorists from their dependence on imported oil."

Robert Lutz (2010) [11]

The Chevrolet Volt concept car debuted at the January 2007 North American International Auto Show. [12] The Volt concept featured a four-door layout with a rear liftgate and seating for four. This design contrasted with the former EV1 which seated two to minimize weight and accommodate its lead-acid battery pack. Top speed was increased on the Volt, from the electronically limited 80 miles per hour (130 km/h) to 101 miles per hour (160 km/h). Additionally, there was a reduction in battery size, from approximately 10.6 cubic feet (300 L) in volume, to 3.5 cubic feet (100 L) in the Volt. [12] [13]

Led by then-vice-chairman for global product development at General Motors Robert Lutz, the Volt project sought to emulate the success of the Toyota Prius and become a leapfrog product Apple's iPod. [14] Inspired by the Tesla Roadster sports car and the rapid advances in lithium-ion battery technology, Lutz advocated for the development of a new car after the 2006 Detroit Auto Show [15] [16] [17] despite internal opposition stemming from the billion-dollar loss experienced in the 1990s with the EV1. [14] [18] Lutz's initial idea was to develop an all-electric car. Still, when Jon Lauckner, General Motors vice president for global program management, briefly sketched out the powertrain layout, estimated the vehicle weight and battery requirements, he decided a range extender design was more appropriate. He convinced Lutz that adopting a smaller battery pack and a small combustion engine to drive a generator, serving as a range-extender, would address concerns related to expensive batteries, range anxiety, and the lack of public charging infrastructure, thereby circumventing the limitations observed in the EV1 program. [16] [19]

The majority of the Volt's initial design parameters defined for the development of the concept car then referred to as the "iCar" in homage to the iPod, were kept throughout the process up to the final production version. A major design parameter was a target of 40 miles (64 km) for the all-electric range to keep the battery size compact and lower costs. This decision was largely based on research which indicated that 78% of daily commuters in the United States travel 40 miles or less. This target range allows drivers to effectively use its zero-emissions system, assuming that charging takes place at home overnight. To meet these requirements, a lithium-ion battery pack with a 16  kWh energy storage capacity was selected. The choice took into account that the battery would be used until the state of charge reached 30%, ensuring operational performance across various conditions and minimizing the battery degradation, achieving a minimum ten-year lifespan. The initial target range for the gasoline engine/generator was set between 250 and 300 miles (400 and 480 km), and the vehicle had to accommodate four or five passengers, conforming to the standards of a family car. [16] [20]

Light blue concept car indoors at 2007 NAIAS.
The Chevrolet Volt concept car was unveiled at the January 2007 North American International Auto Show.

A major design decision was to develop the concept car based on a new family of common powertrain components for electric propulsion, which initially was called the E-Flex Systems, [note 2] but was later renamed Voltec drive system. This powertrain was designed to establish a standardized framework for various components within potential future electrically driven vehicles, facilitating the integration of multiple interchangeable electricity-generating systems. The E-Flex powertrain was designed to configure vehicles for battery electric, fuel cell-powered, or alternative energy sources for onboard electricity generation, including engine-generator sets (genset) powered by gasoline, diesel, biodiesel, ethanol fuel ( E100), or flex-fuel ( E85). The incorporation of regenerative braking further improves the onboard electricity. [23] [24] [25]

In October 2006, General Motors selected the E-Flex powertrain as the new propulsion architecture. They chose the name Volt. [23] The Volt concept car served as the first application of the E-Flex drive system with a combination of an electric motor—similar to that of the one used in the Chevrolet Equinox Fuel Cell—a 16  kWh (58  MJ) lithium-ion battery pack with 136  kW of peak power, and a genset consisting of a small 1.0 L, 3-cylinder turbocharged flex-fuel capable engine linked to a 53 kW (71 hp) generator. General Motors referred to this genset as an electric vehicle (EV) range extender. The vehicle is synergized by an electric motor with a peak output of 120 kW (160 hp) delivering 236 lb⋅ft (320 N⋅m) of motoring torque. Various advanced materials from GE Automotive Plastics were incorporated, effectively reducing vehicle weight by up to 50%. [26]

With a fuel capacity of 12 US gal (45 L; 10.0 imp gal), which provides the vehicle with a total driving range of approximately 640 mi (1,030 km), the car combines a gasoline fuel efficiency of approximately 50 mpg‑US (4.7 L/100 km; 60 mpg‑imp) and an all-electric range of 40 mi (64 km). General Motors estimated that a daily drive of 60 mi (97 km), coupled with an overnight recharge to support the first 40 all-electric miles, would result in an effective gasoline fuel economy of 150 mpg‑US (1.6 L/100 km; 180 mpg‑imp). [26] [24] General Motors underscored the potential to further reduce dependence on imported oil by using E85 ethanol instead of gasoline to power the onboard generator engine. [27] [28] General Motors also noted that actual production of the Volt depended on advancements in battery development, as the required rechargeable batteries needed to make the Volt a viable vehicle did not exist in the market and were yet to be developed. [26] [16] [28] The prototype vehicle is propelled by a pair of standard 12-volt conventional car batteries, which provides the vehicle with a sufficient amount of energy to operate at low speeds while stationary. [29]

Lutz initially claimed that the Volt was expected to sell for around US$30,000, based on the cost of a conventional car of that size with a four-cylinder engine. Additionally, an extra US$8,000 was estimated for the lithium-ion battery. [30] [31] Engineers faced cost escalation when they realized that the Volt could not share components from General Motors' compact car platform such as power steering, power brake, and air-conditioning compressor, each of which was driven by a belt running off the engine. This, coupled with the inclusion of a compact 110 kW (150 hp) electric motor and specialized microprocessors to control energy flow to the motor, led to a base price of around US$40,000. [31]

Production model

Rear three-quarters view of a blue liftback with short suspension. Photo taken indoors at the Geneva Motor Show in 2013. It is the European-specification Chevrolet Volt.
2013 Chevrolet Volt at the Geneva Motor Show.

General Motors stated on December 7, 2009, that US$700 million would be spent at eight Michigan facilities to prepare the Chevrolet Volt for production. GM officials provided a comprehensive overview of their investment strategy for the Chevrolet Volt during a presentation at the assembly plant situated on the border between Detroit and Hamtramck. The plant underwent a significant upgrade amounting to US$336 million, encompassing the installation of new machinery and equipment. GM's investment in Volt-related initiatives extends to several key projects, including the allocation of US$202 million for a new plant in Flint dedicated to manufacturing engine generators; US$43 million for a plant in the Detroit suburb of Brownstown Township responsible for battery packs; US$37 million for the Bay City powertrain plant; and US$27 million for the GM Tech Center housing the Volt's battery laboratory. [32]

After the concept was put into the pipeline for production, General Motors began searching for a partner to develop the Volt's lithium-ion battery pack. They scrutinized about 25 battery cell chemistries and constructions from around 24 lithium-ion battery manufacturers globally. [33] In June 2007, Compact Power (CPI) and Continental Automotive Systems were selected due to their more promising battery cell technologies. CPI uses a lithium manganese oxide (LiMn2O4) cell manufactured by its parent company, LG Chemical. In contrast Continental Automotive Systems uses lithium iron phosphate-based cylindrical cells developed by A123Systems. [33] [34] [35] By the end of October 2007, CPI had delivered their finalized prototype battery packs, while A123 had delivered theirs by January 2008. GM's testing was conducted at the laboratory established for the GM EV1 program. The battery packs incorporated monitoring systems designed to keep the batteries cool and operating at an optimal capacity across the diverse range of ambient temperatures. [33] [35] To ensure the battery pack's longevity over a 10-year and 150,000 mi (240,000 km) warranty, the Volt team decided to use only half of the 16 kWh capacity to minimize the rate of capacity degradation, limiting the state of charge (SoC) to 80% of capacity and never depleting the battery below 30%. [35] [36] GM also anticipated the battery to withstand 5,000 full discharges without losing more than 10% of its charge capacity. [35]

In April 2008, General Motors began extensive testing on its batteries. Over the subsequent two years, the engineering team subjected the battery packs to the equivalent of 150,000 real-world miles (240,000 km) and 10 years of usage. [35] The project involved extensive battery assessments and validation testing at GM's laboratory in Warren, Michigan. This facility has 160 test channels and 42 thermal chambers that subject the batteries to real-world driving conditions and varying temperatures. It features 32 battery cyclers, dubbed "treadmills", designed for repetitive pack depletion and charging. Engineers inspected packs for shorts, corrosion, and crash impact, conducting various real-life scenarios involving flooding, crushing, and penetration. The durability assessment included exposure to various extreme ambient conditions, including a shaker table to replicate potholes and a thermal chamber, to simulate real-world temperatures varying from 116 °F (47 °C) to −40 °F (−40 °C). [33] In April 2008, the lithium-ion battery pack was integrated into Chevrolet Malibus equipped with the Volt powertrain, serving as test mules for further real-world assessments. [35] [37]

In October 2008, GM selected CPI (LG Chemical) to provide the battery systems for the first production version of the Volt. [38] In July 2008, the company disclosed that a 1.4-liter 4-cylinder engine would serve as the range extender, with plans for production in Flint, Michigan. [39] In April 2009, General Motors allowed journalists to test the Volt powertrain without the range-extending generator in Chevrolet Cruze (J300) sedans used as test mules at the GM Technical Center in Warren, Michigan. [40] After the tests, the prototypes, with the packs integrated into the cars, underwent similar assessments while on the road. [41] The first pre-production test car, based on the final design, were assembled in June 2009 in Warren, Michigan. [42] By October 2009, 80 pre-production Volts had been built and subjected to testing under various conditions. [42] [43] On March 31, 2010, the first factory-built example rolled off the assembly line at the Detroit Hamtramck Assembly Plant, which served as a test for the production line and quality control purposes, evaluating both tooling and pre-production vehicles before series production commenced. [44] [45]

The manufacture-ready vehicle was officially unveiled on the morning of September 16, 2008, as part of the General Motors centennial celebration at the Wintergarden headquarters in Detroit. [46] [47] The production model differed greatly in design from the original concept car. The use of General Motors' new global compact vehicle platform, Delta II, shared with the 2010 model year Chevrolet Cruze, was to keep costs reasonable, for "both the company and customers", as described by design director Bob Boniface. [48] Another significant difference from the concept car is the seating, as the production Volt accommodates four passengers in place of five. This adjustment was necessitated by the heightened central tunnel, extending from the front console to the rear seat, which houses the vehicle's T-shaped battery pack. [49]

On November 30, 2010, General Motors hosted a ceremony at its Detroit Hamtramck Assembly Plant to unveil the first Chevrolet Volt produced on the assembly line. The first Volt designated for retail distribution was slated for exhibition at GM's Heritage Center museum in Sterling Heights, Michigan. [50] The second unit was placed up for public auction, with an opening bid of US$50,000. The auction was won by Rick Hendrick, who secured the vehicle for US$225,000. The proceeds from this auction were directed towards supporting mathematics and science educations in Detroit through the Detroit Public Schools Foundation. [51] The first delivery in the United States took place on December 15, 2010 to retired pilot Jeffrey Kaffee. [52] Canadian deliveries commenced in September 2011. [53] [54] The first deliveries of the Chevrolet Volt in Europe took place in November 2011. [55] [56] The Opel Ampera, a rebadged Volt with stylistic modifications, became available to retail customers in Europe in February 2012. [57] Deliveries of the right-hand drive Vauxhall Ampera for the United Kingdom began in May 2012. [55] The Holden Volt was released for the Australian market in December 2012. [58] [59]

Design

Side view of a white 4.5-meter long liftback
Side view of a white 4.5-meter long liftback with AMPERA livery
Volt (top) and Ampera (bottom) common elements include doors, fenders, interiors, and the hood panel. However, the front and rear bumpers are unique to each car.

Designers at General Motors sought to make the Volt's design as conventional as possible. [60] Engineers were dedicated to minimizing aerodynamic drag, [61] but they intentionally avoided incorporating the distinctive roofline and silhouette of the second-generation Prius, considering it synonymous with the 'hybrid' aesthetic. [62] [63] The Volt and Ampera share a common 2,685 mm (105.7 in) wheelbase and are comparable in length to the Opel Astra J and Cruze J300, with which they also share their fundamental body structures. While front and rear bumpers are unique to each car, the doors, fenders, hood panels, and interiors are interchangeable. In adopting a more general style, Opel had to forgo distinctive design elements including the "side blade" and "wing" motifs. However, front and rear bumper assemblies are unique to each car, and thus the team specifically focused on these areas. [64] Bob Boniface served as the design director for the concept and production iterations of the Volt. [65] [66]

In April 2007, Ed Welburn, vice president of global design, established an E-Flex studio in Detroit, with Boniface at the helm. [64] [67] The primary objective of this studio was to focus on the body development of the Volt, simultaneously while working on the design of future electrified vehicles. The E-Flex group expanded to include 50 designers and engineers who dedicated more than a year of aerodynamic development. [67]

When the Volt was approved for production, I decided we needed a dedicated mix of designers and engineers from the show-car team, working together with people from vehicle aerodynamics and the production side, and they needed their own creative space.

Necessary aerodynamic adjustments were implemented to reduce the concept car's high drag coefficient of 0.43  Cd down to 0.28 Cd; [46] [68] [69] although this figure is still higher than that of the Toyota Prius' 0.25. [70] Boniface and his team dedicated approximately 500 hours (21 days) to wind tunnel development. As intended, the resultant design featured a more conventional design, incorporating a taller greenhouse and departing from the Camaro-like one seen in the concept. However, more significant aerodynamic enhancements were evident at the corners. The leading edges at the front fenders were rounded to create consistent laminar airflow along the car's sides. The production model's front fascia features a flush design and the frontal air intake is redirected through a horizontal opening below the grille instead of the grille itself. Boniface claimed that specific attention was given to the rear spoiler, rocker panels, and A- and C-pillars to minimize turbulence over the roof and reduce overall drag. [67]

Specifications

Drivetrain

Internal components of a Chevrolet Volt
Right side: power inverter on top of the electric motor used for traction; left side: the 1.4 L gasoline engine used as a generator to keep the battery at minimum charge.

The 2011 Chevrolet Volt featured a 16 kWh / 45 A·h (10.4 kWh usable) lithium-ion battery pack. [71] [72] It can be charged by connecting the car to a 120–240 VAC residential electrical outlet using the provided SAE J1772-compliant charging cord. [73] The Volt is powered by an electric motor that has a peak output of 111 kW (149 hp) delivering 273 lb⋅ft (370 N⋅m) of torque. [74] Capacity of the battery pack was increased to 16.5 kWh (10.9 kWh usable) for 2013 models, which enhanced its all-electric range from 35 to 38 mi (56 to 61 km). [75] [76] Upgrades for 2015 models included a larger battery capacity of 17.1 kWh. [77]

While driving, when the Volt's battery level diminishes to a predetermined threshold from full charge, a compact naturally aspirated 1.4-liter 4-cylinder gasoline fueled internal combustion engine (Opel's Family 0 [78]) with approximately 80 hp (60 kW), powers a 55 kW generator to extend the Volt's range. [79] [74] The vehicle also has a regenerative braking system. [80] The electrical power from the generator is sent primarily to the electric motor, with the excess going to the batteries, depending on the state of charge (SOC) of the battery pack and the power demanded at the wheels. [81]

The drivetrain enables the Volt to operate as a pure battery electric vehicle until its battery capacity has been depleted to a defined level. At this time, it functions as a series hybrid, where the gasoline engine propels the generator, maintaining the battery at a minimum charge level and supplying power to the electric motors. The full charge of the battery is exclusively replenished by connecting it to the electrical grid. While in this series mode at higher speeds and loads, (typically above 30 miles per hour (48 km/h) at light to moderate loads) the gasoline engine can engage mechanically to the output from the transmission and assist both electric motors in driving the wheels, in which case the Volt operates as a power-split or series-parallel hybrid. After its all-electric range has been depleted, at speeds between 30 and 70 miles per hour (48 and 113 km/h), the Volt is programmed to select the most efficient drive mode, which improves performance and boosts high-speed efficiency by 10% to 15%. [82] [9]

While operating modes are switched automatically, the Volt allows three distinct drive options available to the driver: normal, sport, and mountain. [83] The mountain mode, which is expected to be required only under unusual power demand conditions, increases minimum battery state of charge (SOC) to around 45%, thus maintaining performance on steep and long grades. However, the higher power generation rate in this mode results in increased engine noise. [82] In sport mode, the engine operates at a higher RPM, providing a more responsive reaction to the throttle pedal. [84] Additionally, the Ampera introduces a functionality known as "City Mode" or "battery hold", allowing drivers to conserve energy stored in the battery for urban travel or restricted zones. This feature was introduced to the 2013 model year Volt and is known as "Hold". [85] [86] [87]

Battery

The lithium-ion battery pack in the 2011 Volt weighs 435 pounds (197 kg) and comprises 288 cells organized into nine modules. [88] [89] Pairs of lithium-ion cells are secured within plastic frames, which sandwich an aluminum cooling fin. The design and construction of this aluminum plate were crucial to maintaining a consistent temperature distribution, preventing the occurrence of hot or cool spots across the flat, rectangular cells. The battery pack is equipped with its cooling circuit that resembles the engine cooling system. [90]

A Chevrolet Volt charging
Inlet for the electrical charger in the left side of the Chevrolet Volt with the manufacturer's provided charging cord.

For the 2011 and 2012 model years, the 16 kWh battery was controlled by the energy management system to use only 10.3 kWh, maximizing the life of the pack. [91] Consequently, the battery is prevented from reaching full charge or complete depletion, as the embedded software confines its operation within a specific State of Charge (SoC) window set at 65%. Once this threshold is reached, the engine engages and maintains the charge near the lower level. The minimum SoC varies depending on operating conditions. In situations where the vehicle requires increased power, such as during mountain mode, the lower threshold of the states of charge (SoC) is increased to 45% to ensure an ample supply of power. [82] The battery capacity was increased to 16.5 kWh for the 2013 model year, and the SoC window was increased to use 10.8 kWh of the total battery energy, and the buffer to ensure battery life longevity. These adjustments extend the Volt's all-electric range, albeit with a marginal increase in charging duration. General Motors achieved improved battery performance and durability by making subtle alterations to the material composition of the battery cell chemistry. [92] [93] [94]

Cutway of a Chevrolet Volt, revealing most of its internal components
Powertrain cut-away of the Volt revealing both of its engines and the underfloor T-shape tunnel where the battery pack is located.

Despite the energy of each battery pack being nearly identical (±0.5 kWh), the Volt's battery pack is over 70% lighter than the EV1's original 1,310 lb (590 kg) 16.5 kWh AC Delco lead-acid battery pack, primarily because of its higher specific energy lithium-ion batteries. Li-ion batteries were expected to become less expensive as economies of scale take effect. [95] [96] [97] General Motors provides an eight-year or 1,000,000 miles (1,600,000 km) warranty for the Volt's battery, covering all 161 battery components. [98] [99] The Volt's battery management system runs more than 500 diagnostics at 10 times per second, allowing it to keep track of the Volt's battery pack in real-time, 85% of which ensure the battery pack is operating safely and 15% monitor battery performance and life. [98]

The Volt employs the J1772 charging plug, a standard connector for electric cars in North America. [100] Depending on in-car settings, a full charge takes from approximately 10 hours (with the 12 A setting) to as much as 14 hours (8 A setting) from a standard North American 120-volt receptacle. From a 240-volt source, a full charge takes around 4 hours. [101] [102]

Production and markets

North America

Assembly of the Volt was assigned to Detroit/Hamtramck Assembly plant following the UAW–GM conclusion of the 2007 contract negotiations. [103] For the initial production phase, the gasoline engine was sourced from the Opel engine plant in Aspern, Austria. [104] In November 2010, General Motors began investing US$138.3 million at its engine operations plant in Flint, Michigan, to support increased production of the Ecotec 1.4-liter engine used in the Chevrolet Cruze, the upcoming 2012 Chevrolet Sonic, and the variant used in the Chevrolet Volt. The Flint plant was projected to commence production at a rate of 400 engines per day in early 2011, escalating to 800 engines daily by late 2011, and ultimately reaching a capacity of 1,200 engines per day by late 2012. [105] In May 2011, an additional investment of US$84 million at the Flint plant was decided upon by General Motors to further increase the production capacity of the 1.4-liter engine. [106]

In 2010, General Motors initially planned to produce 10,000 Volts in the calendar year 2011 and 45,000 units for 2012, surpassing the initially announced 30,000 units. [107] In May 2011, the production targets were revised upwards, with Volt and Ampera production capacity increased to 16,000 units in 2011, including 3,500 units for export, 2,500 demonstration units for U.S. dealerships, and the remainder for U.S. sales. [108] However, in November 2011 GM's sales chief announced that they would not meet its sales goal of 10,000 vehicles in 2011. [109] Out of the 2012 production, General Motors anticipated the production of 10,000 Amperas for sale in Europe, with 6,000 allocated for Opel and 4,000 for Vauxhall in the UK. Additionally, 2,000 Volts were designated for the region. [110] However, by early 2012, GM abandoned its sales target to deliver 45,000 Volts in the U.S. and instead announced that production in 2012 would be contingent on demand. [111] [112] By March 2012, the Volt plant had a global production capacity of 60,000 vehicles per year. [112] The battery cells for the Volt are manufactured by LG Chem in South Korea and then transported to the U.S., where the battery packs are assembled at a specialized facility in Brownstown Charter Township, Michigan, owned and operated by General Motors. [113]

A grassy area with a few trees; an assembly plant is at the back.
Brownstown Assembly Plant, where the LG Chemical-manufactured batteries are assembled.

In mid-June 2011, General Motors (GM) temporarily halted production at the Detroit/Hamtramck Assembly plant for approximately one month. This pause was undertaken to implement important upgrades, including the installation of new tooling, equipment, and overhead conveyor systems across the facility. These allowed GM to triple the production rate of the Volt, facilitating the plant's readiness for the manufacturing of the 2012 Volt and Ampera. [114] [115] [116] After the plant retooling, the production rate reached 150 units per day four days a week by August 2011. [117] The Volt plant also underwent a shutdown in January 2012 to prepare for the production of the California lower-emission version. [111] A four-week hiatus due to slow sales occurred between March and April 2012. [118] GM, citing around 3,600 Volts in inventory, desired to reduce dealer inventories as production was expected to meet market demand. [111] [119] From September 17 to October 15, 2012, GM closed its Detroit-Hamtramck plant, affecting approximately 1,500 workers during downtime. This closure was for retooling to accommodate the assembly of the all-new tenth generation Chevrolet Impala alongside the 2013 Volt. [120]

Front three-quarters view of a black 2-door coupe. Featuring a Cadillac badge, vertically-shaped headlights adorn its exterior. It has large wheels, and its license plate says Cadillac ELR, with the former word in an unusual font.
The Cadillac ELR (pictured) and the Volt were both produced at the same Detroit facility and share the Voltec powertrain.

In July 2012, production officially began for the 2013 model year Volt; deliveries commenced in the same month. [121] In October 2012, GM announced that the Detroit-Hamtramck Assembly plant would serve as the manufacturing site for the Cadillac ELR luxury range-extender coupe, alongside the Volt and the Ampera. The inclusion of the ELR at the plant involved an investment of US$35 million, contributing to a cumulative product expenditure of US$561 million since December 2009. [122] The first 2014 ELRs were produced in late May 2013, serving as pre-production units designated for testing before retail production began by the close of 2013. [123] Official manufacture of the first generation ended on May 21, 2015; assembly of the pre-production second generation units began in March. [124] [125]

In February 2012, GM introduced a low-emission version tailored for the Californian market. It features a package that classifies it as an "enhanced, advanced technology – partial zero-emissions vehicle" (enhAT-PZEV), granting it access to California's high-occupancy vehicle lanes (HOV). [126] Updates encompass alterations to its engine and exhaust components. The catalytic converter was modified to add a secondary air-injection pump that introduces ambient air into the exhaust stream to help remove pollutants. [127] [128]

Europe

Front 3/4 view of a Navajo-White colored automobile with large, black labelling that says AMPERA
Rear 3/4 view of a Navajo-White colored automobile with large, black labelling that says AMPERA
Opel Ampera

The European version of the Volt, the Opel Ampera (known as the Vauxhall Ampera in the United Kingdom), [129] debuted at the Geneva Auto Show in March 2009 [130] and was also exhibited at the 2009 Frankfurt Auto Show. [131] Opel developed the battery control modules for the Ampera at the Opel Alternative Propulsion Center Europe in Mainz-Kastel, Germany. [132] The production version of the Ampera was unveiled at the 2011 Geneva Motor Show. [85]

While the Volt and Ampera share the same powertrain and battery pack, their primary distinctions lie in their styling. [133] The Ampera has boomerang-shape headlamps that integrate with the fog lamps and a thinner light strip at the rear with a large cut-out at the bumper. [134] [135] The Ampera comes with stylized alloy wheels as a standard feature, and its body-colored side skirts distinguish it from the Volt, which has black side skirts. [135] One key operational difference is that the Ampera offers four drive modes, one more than the 2011/12 model year Volt. The additional option is City Mode, tailored to the needs of commuter travel. City Mode, or "battery hold," activates the range-extender immediately, enabling the preservation of energy stored in the battery. When switched off, the range-extender halts, allowing the Ampera to utilize the saved energy for pure electric driving, particularly useful in urban areas, restricted zones like European low emission zones, or to qualify for exemptions such as the London congestion charge. [85] [136]

Front 3/4 view of a dark blue automobile with trees in the background and a UK licence plate
Rear 3/4 view of a dark blue automobile with trees in the background and a UK licence plate
Amperas intended for the UK market feature the Vauxhall badge.

The carmaker targeted the Ampera for the business fleet market and local government agencies, where Opel has a strong customer base, while the Volt is aimed at retail customers. [110] The first deliveries of the Chevrolet Volt in Europe took place on November 30, 2011, to the U.S. Embassy in France. [55] [56] Distribution of the Opel Ampera to dealerships began in December 2011, but deliveries to customers were delayed until February 2012, as Opel decided to await the conclusion of the NHTSA investigation into the Volt's battery fire risk following a crash. [55] From May 2012 onward, the Vauxhall Ampera became available through the Zipcar carsharing club in London, Bristol, Cambridge, and Oxford. [137] In July 2014, Opel announced the discontinuation of the Ampera, citing a slowdown in sales. They further outlined that between 2014 and 2018, they planned to introduce a successor electric vehicle in Europe. [138]

Despite sharing European Car of the Year with the Volt in 2012, the Ampera faced challenges in gaining widespread commercial success since its launch. In 2013, sales experienced a 40 per cent decline, totaling 3,184 cars. The deceleration continued into the following year, with sales plummeting by 67 percent in the first five months to 332 cars. GM hinted at Ampera's forthcoming discontinuation in early 2013, as then-vice chairman Steve Girsky expressed frustration regarding the car's unenthusiastic reception in Europe. "All the governments in Europe said, 'We want EVs, we want EVs'. We show up with one, and where is everybody?", stated Girsky. [139]

Australasia

Slightly sloped three-quarters front view image of a white liftback with Holden badging and short suspension.
Slightly sloped three-quarters front view image of a white liftback with Holden badging and short suspension.
Holden Volt

Deliveries of the Holden Volt in the Australian market began in December 2012, with the first unit delivered to the U.S. Ambassador in Canberra. [58] [140] In November 2011, the first Holden Volt arrived in Australia for a series of evaluation tests. Holden stated that the Volt underwent numerous modifications to enhance its suitability for Australian roads, although the test vehicles remained left-hand drive. [141]

The Holden Volt was made accessible through 49 selected Holden dealerships across metropolitan and rural areas of Australia. Of these, 18 were located in Victoria, 11 in New South Wales, 9 in Queensland, 7 in Western Australia, and 4 in South Australia. [142] By mid-April 2015, a total of 246 units had been sold, depleting the stock of the first generation. In response to General Motors' announcement that the second generation Volt would not be produced in a right-hand-drive configuration, the Volt was discontinued in Australia upon the sale of the remaining stock. [143]

The Holden Volt was introduced in New Zealand through three dealerships in Auckland, Christchurch and Wellington, [144] with deliveries starting in late 2012. [145] By mid-2015, only 16 units were registered despite a price drop of more than NZ$10,000. Due to low sales of the first-generation model, the second-generation Volt was not available in New Zealand. [146]

Controversies and criticism

EPA fuel economy testing

In 2008, General Motors expressed concerns regarding the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) testing procedures for the Volt's official fuel economy rating. The focal point of the controversy revolved around whether the inclusion of a gasoline engine should categorize the Volt as a hybrid electric vehicle rather than an electric car, as asserted by General Motors. If subjected to the same EPA tests applied to other hybrids, the Volt's EPA fuel economy rating would be about 48 mpg‑US (4.9 L/100 km; 58 mpg‑imp) due to the EPA test for hybrids, prohibiting vehicles from boosting their mpg rating using stored battery power. General Motors argued that the Volt was an entirely new vehicle type not adequately assessed by the EPA's existing fuel economy tests. They advocated for the creation of a new test tailored to the emerging class of hybrid-electrics. [147] General Motors also advocated for a more simplified mpg calculation method to take into account the range of a plug-in hybrid while running solely on electricity. Given the Volt's ability to travel 40 miles (64 km) on batteries alone, GM contended that most drivers with a daily commute of less than that distance would exclusively use electric mode provided they recharged their vehicle at work or home overnight. [148]

In November 2010, the EPA issued an official rating that included separate fuel economy ratings for the Volt's all-electric and gasoline-only modes. The overall combined city/highway gasoline-electricity fuel economy rating was stated as 60 mpg‑US (3.9 L/100 km; 72 mpg‑imp) equivalent (MPG-e). [149] [150] To address the fuel economy variability based on miles driven between charges, the EPA incorporated a table on the Volt's fuel economy label, showing fuel economy and electricity consumed for five different scenarios driven between a full charge, and a never-charge scenario. [149] According to this table, the Volt's fuel economy could reach up to 168 mpg‑US (1.40 L/100 km; 202 mpg‑imp) equivalent (MPG-e) if driven 45 miles (72 km) between full charges. [151] Recognizing the multiple operating modes possible for plug-in hybrids (all-electric, blended, and gasoline-only), the EPA and NHTSA issued separate labels for the new mandatory fuel economy and environment labels beginning in model year 2013. One label was designed for extended-range electric vehicles, such as the Volt, with two modes: all-electric and gasoline-only. The second label was for blended mode, including a combination of all-electric, gasoline and electric operation, and gasoline only, akin to a conventional hybrid vehicle. [152] [153]

EPA fuel economy rating

In August 2009, General Motors released an estimated city fuel economy rating for the Volt, stating it as 230 mpg‑US (1.0 L/100 km; 280 mpg‑imp) of gasoline plus 25 kWh/100 mi (160 Wh/km) of electricity, using the EPA's proposed method for evaluating plug-in hybrids. [154] [155] The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a statement clarifying that they had not tested a Chevy Volt and, therefore, could not confirm the fuel economy values claimed by GM. [154] GM later explained in July 2010 that their estimate relied on a formula that had not been officially approved, and they were awaiting the EPA's decision on how to officially estimate the equivalent fuel economy of plug-in hybrids. [156]

The official EPA rating was eventually issued in November 2010, becoming the agency's first fuel economy label for a plug-in hybrid. According to the EPA, the 2011 Volt had a combined fuel economy rating of 93  mpg‑e (36 kWh/100 mi; 230 Wh/km) in all-electric mode and 37 mpg‑US (6.4 L/100 km; 44 mpg‑imp) in gasoline-only mode, resulting in an overall combined fuel economy rating of 60 mpg‑US (3.9 L/100 km; 72 mpg‑imp) equivalent. The label also provided the combined city-highway fuel economy in all-electric mode using traditional energy consumption units, rating the Volt at 36 kWh/100 mi (220 Wh/km). [149] [150]

Battery pack fire risk

The top image shows a fine, dark gray liftback in an automobile safety/testing laboratory. The bottom shows a destroyed version of the car, as the result of a fire.
The Chevrolet Volt, which ignited following the pole test in June 2011. The top image displays the condition of the car before the fire, while the bottom shows the aftermath of the incident.

In June 2011, a Volt that had been subjected by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) to a 20 mph (32 km/h) side pole impact crash test, followed by a post-impact rollover, caught fire three weeks later in the test center parking lot, leading to the combustion of nearby vehicles. The investigation determined that the source of the fire was the Volt's battery. Following the incident, both Chevrolet and the NHTSA independently replicated the crash test and a subsequent vehicle rotation procedure to test for any fluid leakage. In their initial attempt, they were unable to reproduce the conditions that led to the battery pack ignition. The NHTSA concluded that the crash test had damaged the Volt's lithium-ion battery, ultimately causing a vehicle fire that took several weeks to manifest. [157] [158] In further testing of the Volt's batteries in November 2011, conducted by the NHTSA, two out of three tests resulted in thermal events. One battery pack rotated 180 degrees shortly after impact, began smoking and emitting sparks. In the other case, the battery pack that had been crash-tested a week earlier and was under monitoring since the test caught fire. In response to these findings, on November 25, 2011, the NHTSA took an unusual step and initiated a formal safety defect investigation, even without data from real-world incidents. The investigation aimed to examine the potential risks associated with intrusion damage to the battery pack in the Chevrolet Volt. [159] [160] Following the initial Volt fire, the NHTSA examined other plug-in electric vehicles, including the Nissan Leaf, and stated that its testing "has not raised safety concerns about vehicles other than the Chevy Volt". [161]

As a consequence of the investigation, General Motors announced that it would offer any new GM car as an exchange for concerned Volt owners while the federal investigation was ongoing. [162] [163] In December 2011, the company expressed its readiness to recall all vehicles and implement necessary repairs once the cause of the fires was determined. GM also stated its willingness to repurchase the car if an owner felt uneasy about the potential fire risk. [162] [164] The CEO of GM acknowledged the possibility of redesigning or making changes to the battery pack based on recommendations from federal officials. [162] By December 1, 2011, 33 Volt owners in the U.S. and 3 in Canada had requested loaner cars. [162] [165] By December 5, General Motors reported that several dozen Volt owners had requested the company to buy back their cars, with the company agreeing to repurchase about a dozen. Before the carmaker agrees to buy back each vehicle, other options are explored as GM primarily wants to provide loaner cars, but "if the only way we can make them happy is to repurchase it, then we will", stated GM spokesman Selim Bingol. General Motors explained that the buyback price includes the Volt purchase price, plus taxes and fees, less a usage fee based on how many miles the car has been run. [166] [167] By January 5, 2012, GM reported that approximately 250 Volt owners had requested either a loaner vehicle or a potential buyback. [168]

The NHTSA also mentioned its collaboration with all automakers to establish post-crash procedures ensuring the safety of occupants in electric vehicles and emergency responders at crash scenes. Additionally, the NHTSA cautioned about the potential for fires to occur a significant time after a crash. General Motors asserted that the initial fire could have been prevented if the company's protocols for deactivating the battery post-crash had been followed. [169] In another statement, the carmaker expressed its ongoing efforts, stating "We are working with other vehicle manufacturers, first responders, tow truck operators, and salvage associations to implement industrywide protocols". [169]

Battery enhancements

On January 5, 2012, General Motors announced its intention to implement a customer-satisfaction initiative for the Chevrolet Volt. The program was designed to introduce voluntary enhancements, addressing concerns about the potential for the battery pack to catch fire days or weeks after a severe accident. General Motors clarified that neither the car nor the battery was being recalled. The company identified the June fire incident as stemming from a minor intrusion into a side section of the battery pack, causing a small coolant leak of approximately 50 mL (1.8 imp fl oz; 1.7 US fl oz). When the vehicle was put through a slow roll, where it was rotated at 90-degree increments, holding in each position for about five minutes, an additional 1 liter (0.22 imp gal; 0.26 U.S. gal) of coolant leaked. With the vehicle in the 180-degree position (upside down), the coolant came in contact with the printed circuit board electronics at the top of the battery pack and later crystallized. Three weeks later, this condition, combined with a charged battery, led to a short circuit, resulting in the post-crash fire. [170] [171]

General Motors clarified that the modifications aim to reinforce the vehicle structure surrounding the battery and enhance the battery coolant system for improved battery protection following a severe crash. The safety upgrades include strengthening a specific section of the Volt's vehicle safety structure to provide additional safeguarding for the battery pack during a severe side collision. This involves incorporating a sensor in the battery coolant system reservoir to monitor coolant levels and adding a tamper-resistant bracket to the top of the reservoir to prevent potential coolant overfill. [170] [171] The additional side safety structural pieces have a total weight of 2 to 3 lb (0.91 to 1.36 kg), and their function is to spread the load of a severe side impact away from the battery pack, reducing the possibility of intrusion into the pack. [172]

In December 2011, General Motors conducted four crash tests on Volts equipped with reinforced steel and an upgraded cooling system. The results showed no intrusion to the battery and no coolant leakage. On December 22, 2011, the NHTSA subjected a modified Volt to the same test that initially resulted in the fire, revealing no indications of the damage believed to have caused the incident. The NHTSA stated that "the preliminary results of the crash test indicate the remedy proposed by General Motors today should address the issue of battery intrusion", although their investigation remained ongoing. General Motors did not disclose the cost of the modifications. [170] [171]

All 12,400 Chevrolet Volts manufactured until December 2011, including the Amperas held in stock at European dealerships, were slated to receive the safety enhancements. As production was temporarily halted during the holidays, the modifications were implemented when production resumed in early 2012. Sales continued, and dealers carried out the necessary modifications on the Volts they had in stock. General Motors communicated to Volt owners, advising them that they could schedule a service appointment to safeguard their batteries starting in the last week of March 2012. [168] [172]

NHTSA findings

On January 20, 2012, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) concluded its safety defect investigation concerning the Volt's post-crash fire risk. The agency determined that there was "no discernible defect trend" and acknowledged that the modifications recently implemented by General Motors were effective in reducing the potential for battery intrusion resulting from side impacts. The NHTSA also stated that, based on the available data, it did not believe that Chevy Volts or other electric vehicles posed a greater risk of fire compared to gasoline-powered vehicles. The agency also announced the development of interim guidance aimed at increasing awareness and identifying appropriate safety measures regarding electric vehicles for the emergency response community, law enforcement officers, tow truck operators, storage facilities and consumers. [173] [174]

House of Representatives hearing

The chairman of the Subcommittee on Regulatory Affairs, Stimulus Oversight, and Government Spending, U.S. Representative Jim Jordan, held hearings on January 25, 2012, to probe into why the NHTSA initiated a formal investigation only five months after the first post-crash battery fire occurred in June. The subcommittee, a part of the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, aimed to ascertain whether government officials, including those from the NHTSA, intentionally withheld information about the Volt fire for political reasons. [175] [176] Both Daniel Akerson, General Motors CEO, and David L. Strickland, NHTSA administrator, denied any wrongdoing. [177] [178]

Awards and recognition

Year Award Publisher/Awarded at Reference
U.S. organizations
2009 Green Car Vision Award Green Car Journal [179]
2011 Motor Trend Car of the Year Motor Trend [180]
2011 Car and Driver Ten Best Cars Car and Driver [181]
2011 Green Car of the Year Green Car Journal [182]
2011 Automobile of the Year Automobile Magazine [183]
2011 North American Car of the Year North American International Auto Show [note 3] [184]
2011 Greenest Vehicles of the Year American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy [185]
2011 Best Green Cars Mother Earth News [186]
2011 Edison Award [note 4] Edison Awards [187]
2011 Best Resale Value Award [note 5] Kelley Blue Book [188]
European organizations
2011 Winner of What Car? Green Awards (Vauxhall Ampera) What Car? [189]
2011 European Car of the Year [note 6] Geneva Motor Show [190] [191]
2013 Green Mobility Trophy Auto Zeitung [192]
International organizations
2011 World Green Car World Car of the Year [193]
2012 International Engine of the Year Award [note 7] UKi Media & Events [194]
Australian organizations
2012 Green Innovation Award (Holden Volt) [note 8] Drive [195]

References

Notes

  1. ^ Miller, Michael A.; Holmes, Alan G.; Conlon, Brendan M.; Savagian, Peter J. (April 12, 2011). "The GM "Voltec" 4ET50 Multi-Mode Electric Transaxle". SAE International – Technical Papers. 4: 1102–1114. doi: 10.4271/2011-01-0887. ISSN  1946-3936. Retrieved October 30, 2011.
  2. ^ Edsall 2010, p. 11.
  3. ^ Zhou, Haicheng; Xu, Zhaoping; Liu, Liang; Liu, Dong; Zhang, Lingling (September 29, 2019). "Design and validation of a novel hydraulic hybrid vehicle with wheel motors". Science Progress. Sage Publishing. doi: 10.1177/0036850419878024. PMC  10453778.
  4. ^ a b Tate, E. D.; O. Harpster, Michael; J. Savagian, Peter (January 4, 2008). "SAE paper 2008-01-0458: The Electrification of the Automobile: From Conventional Hybrid, to Plug-in Hybrids, to Extended-Range Electric Vehicles" (PDF). Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). Archived from the original (PDF) on August 12, 2022. Retrieved January 6, 2011.
  5. ^ Stenquist, Paul (October 11, 2010). "G.M. 'Officially' Introduces 2011 Chevrolet Volt Amid Controversy". The New York Times. Wheels. Archived from the original on October 1, 2019. Retrieved January 6, 2024.
  6. ^ Chang, Richard S. (June 25, 2009). "Chevrolet Volt Hits Road, Ahead of Schedule". The New York Times. Wheels. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved June 2, 2011.
  7. ^ Oosting, Jonathan (October 12, 2010). "Is the Chevrolet Volt a True Electric Car? General Motors Defends EV Label". MLive Media Group. Archived from the original on November 13, 2018. Retrieved June 2, 2010.
  8. ^ Kuchment, Anna (January 2011). "Practically Green: A Q&A with the Chevy Volt's Chief Engineer". Scientific American. 304 (1). Nature America: 25. doi: 10.1038/scientificamerican0111-25a. ISSN  0036-8733. Retrieved March 27, 2011.
  9. ^ a b c Mayersohn, Norman (October 1, 2010). "Sorting Myth From Fact as Volt Makes Its Debut". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 12, 2023. Retrieved October 17, 2010.
  10. ^ Markus, Frank (October 10, 2010). "Unbolting the Chevy Volt to See How It Ticks". Motor Trend. Archived from the original on August 14, 2011. Retrieved January 6, 2024.
  11. ^ Edsall 2010, p. 8.
  12. ^ a b Voelcker, John (January 2007). "Lithium Batteries for Hybrid Cars". IEEE Spectrum. Archived from the original on May 21, 2011. Retrieved May 14, 2011.
  13. ^ Edsall 2010, p. 43.
  14. ^ a b Guilford, Dave (August 3, 2009). "The Story Behind Chevy Volt's $40,000 Price Sticker". Advertising Age. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved November 4, 2019.
  15. ^ "Bob Lutz: The Man Who Revived the Electric Car". Newsweek. December 22, 2007. Archived from the original on April 14, 2023. Retrieved January 6, 2014.
  16. ^ a b c d Edsall 2010, pp. 91–116.
  17. ^ Fletcher 2011, pp. 4, 5.
  18. ^ Friend, Tad (January 7, 2009). "Elon Musk and electric cars". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on November 30, 2023. Retrieved September 14, 2009. All the geniuses here at General Motors kept saying lithium-ion technology is 10 years away, and Toyota agreed with us—and boom, along comes Tesla. So I said, 'How come some tiny little California startup, run by guys who know nothing about the car business, can do this, and we can't?' That was the crowbar that helped break up the log jam.
  19. ^ Lauckner, Jon (August 17, 2010). "A Car Guy's Electric Moment". CBS News. Archived from the original on November 17, 2022. Retrieved November 5, 2019.
  20. ^ "GM to unveil Volt electric concept car". NBC News. Associated Press. January 7, 2007. Archived from the original on September 30, 2023. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
  21. ^ Oliver, Ben (January 7, 2007). "Chevrolet Volt concept". Car Magazine. Archived from the original on May 23, 2022. Retrieved January 8, 2024.
  22. ^ Edsall 2010, p. 29.
  23. ^ a b Edsall 2010, pp. 29–33.
  24. ^ a b Abuelsamid, Sam (January 7, 2007). "A Look at the GM E-Flex Platform". Autoblog Green. AOL. Archived from the original on March 27, 2009. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
  25. ^ Saunders, Matt (August 30, 2007). "GM's powertrain of the future: E-Flex". Autocar. Archived from the original on January 8, 2024. Retrieved January 8, 2024.
  26. ^ a b c "GM Introduces E-Flex Electric Vehicle System; Chevrolet Volt the First Application". Green Car Congress. January 6, 2007. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved January 8, 2024.
  27. ^ Edsall 2010, pp. 35.
  28. ^ a b Fletcher 2011, pp. 73–74.
  29. ^ Lutz, Bob (2011). Car Guys vs. Bean Counters: The Battle for the Soul of American Business. Portfolio Hardcover, Penguin Group. ISBN  978-1-59184-400-6. Location 2234 Kindle edition.
  30. ^ Squatriglia, Chuck (June 6, 2008). "Bob Lutz Drives the Volt, Calls It 'Electrifying'". WIRED. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved November 5, 2019.
  31. ^ a b "How Volt's cost rose and rose and rose..." Automotive News Europe. August 2, 2009. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved January 8, 2024.
  32. ^ "GM plans to spend $700 mn for Volt electric car". The Economic Times. December 8, 2009. Archived from the original on February 8, 2024.
  33. ^ a b c d Edsall 2010, pp. 48–57.
  34. ^ Abuelsamid, Sam (June 5, 2007). "GM awards two battery development contracts for Chevy Volt". Autoblog Green. AOL. Archived from the original on November 9, 2010. Retrieved January 9, 2024.
  35. ^ a b c d e f Fletcher 2011, pp. 84–89.
  36. ^ Wood, Eric; Alexander, Marcus; Bradley, Thomas H. (2011). "Investigation of battery end-of-life conditions for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles" (PDF). Journal of Power Sources. 196 (11): 5147–5154. Bibcode: 2011JPS...196.5147W. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.02.025. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 29, 2011. Retrieved May 22, 2011. See p. 5149.
  37. ^ Blanco, Sebastian (April 3, 2008). "GM's Chevy Volt update: All systems go, Malibu-based li-ion mules coming soon". Autoblog Green. AOL. Archived from the original on January 24, 2009. Retrieved October 23, 2010.
  38. ^ Kim, Soyoung (October 22, 2008). "LG Chem to supply GM Volt batteries". Reuters. Archived from the original on October 19, 2023. Retrieved August 11, 2009.
  39. ^ Lawlor, Joe (July 28, 2009). "General Motors confirms intention to manufacture engine for battery-powered Volt in Flint". MLive Media Group. The Flint Journal. Archived from the original on January 23, 2009. Retrieved January 10, 2024.
  40. ^ Squatriglia, Chuck (April 20, 2009). "Billion-Dollar Baby: We Drive the Chevrolet Volt". WIRED. Archived from the original on November 10, 2023. Retrieved January 10, 2024.
  41. ^ Squatriglia, Chuck (May 27, 2009). "First Look: Chevrolet Volt in Red". WIRED. Archived from the original on October 3, 2022. Retrieved January 5, 2024.
  42. ^ a b Motavalli, Jim (June 2, 2009). "G.M. Says Chevy Volt Is Still on Track". The New York Times. Wheels. Archived from the original on August 4, 2021. Retrieved June 2, 2009.
  43. ^ Vlasic, Bill; Bunkley, Nick (August 11, 2009). "G.M. Puts Electric Car's City Mileage in Triple Digits". The New York Times. Archived from the original on June 4, 2023. Retrieved January 10, 2023.
  44. ^ "GM builds first Chevy Volt, says production line practice run OK". USA Today. March 31, 2010. Archived from the original on June 4, 2023. Retrieved April 5, 2010.
  45. ^ "First Pre-Production Chevy Volt Rolls Off Line". Green Car Congress. April 2, 2010. Archived from the original on June 4, 2023. Retrieved April 5, 2010.
  46. ^ a b Sqautriglia, Chuck (September 16, 2008). "Exclusive: Inside the Design Process of the Volt". WIRED. Archived from the original on September 23, 2022. Retrieved January 10, 2024.
  47. ^ "Photos: Production Chevrolet Volt debuts". CNET. Archived from the original on May 24, 2022. Retrieved January 10, 2023.
  48. ^ Edsall 2010, p. 71.
  49. ^ Motavalli, Jim (September 21, 2008). "G.M. Tones Down the Volt". The New York Times. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
  50. ^ Vlasic, Bill (November 30, 2010). "G.M. to Hire 1,000 to Engineer More Electric Cars". The New York Times. Archived from the original on June 30, 2023. Retrieved November 30, 2010.
  51. ^ "Rick Hendrick Wins First Retail Chevy Volt for $225,000". Autoblog. AOL. December 17, 2010. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved December 17, 2010.
  52. ^ Costea, Andrei. "First Chevrolet Volt Delivered in the United States". Autoevolution. Softpedia. Archived from the original on March 17, 2017. Retrieved January 10, 2024.
  53. ^ "Chevy brings electric Volt to Canada". CBC News. The Canadian Press. September 1, 2011. Archived from the original on February 6, 2013. Retrieved September 22, 2011.
  54. ^ Chow, Wanda (September 19, 2011). "Eager customer takes delivery of Chevy Volt in Burnaby". Burnaby News Leader. Archived from the original on September 23, 2011. Retrieved September 22, 2011.
  55. ^ a b c d Jolley, David (December 12, 2011). "Opel delays Ampera deliveries to customers on battery worries". Automotive News Europe. Retrieved December 12, 2011.
  56. ^ a b Diem, William (December 1, 2011). "U.S. Embassy in France Buys Four Chevy Volt". The New York Times. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved December 12, 2011.
  57. ^ "Germany: Eberspaecher outlines input on Opel Ampera". Automotive World. January 31, 2012. Archived from the original on January 11, 2024. Retrieved January 11, 2024.
  58. ^ a b Ellery, David (December 13, 2012). "Ambassador gets a charge out of new Volt". The Canberra Times. Archived from the original on September 23, 2015. Retrieved December 16, 2012.
  59. ^ Tesar, Martin (December 8, 2012). "First Holden Volt Now Delivered in Australia; An Owner's Story". InsideEVs. Archived from the original on October 10, 2017. Retrieved December 16, 2012.
  60. ^ Leahy, Michael (June 7, 2009). "GM turns to Volt to revitalize its image". NBC News. Archived from the original on January 11, 2024. Retrieved January 11, 2024.
  61. ^ Tortosa, Nina; Karbon, Kenneth (April 12, 2011). "Aerodynamic Development of the 2011 Chevrolet Volt". SAE International – Technical Papers. doi: 10.4271/2011-01-0168. ISSN  1946-3995.
  62. ^ Brooke 2011, p. 142.
  63. ^ Simpson, Joe (May 6, 2015). "Driven: Chevrolet Volt". Car Design News. Archived from the original on September 30, 2022. Retrieved January 11, 2024.
  64. ^ a b Hull, Nick (May 6, 2015). "Design Development: Opel Ampera". Car Design News. Archived from the original on September 30, 2023. Retrieved January 10, 2024.
  65. ^ Cumberford, Robert (March 6, 2009). "2011 Chevy Volt - From Show Car to Showroom". Motor Trend. Archived from the original on January 18, 2022. Retrieved January 11, 2024.
  66. ^ "GM opens studio dedicated to new electric cars". NBC News. December 10, 2007. Archived from the original on February 8, 2023. Retrieved January 11, 2024.
  67. ^ a b c d Brooke 2011, p. 143.
  68. ^ Voelcker, John (May 1, 2008). "EV ROUNDUP: ELECTRIC VEHICLES MOVE FORWARD...SLOWLY". IEEE Spectrum. Archived from the original on October 4, 2023. Retrieved January 10, 2024.
  69. ^ Sherman, Don (September 28, 2011). "2011 Chevrolet Cruze Eco". Car and Driver. Archived from the original on June 30, 2017. Retrieved January 10, 2024.
  70. ^ Goodwin, Antuan. "Take a look back four generations of Toyota Prius (pictures)". CNET. Archived from the original on November 24, 2023. Retrieved January 10, 2023.
  71. ^ Parrish, Robert; Elankumaran, Kanthasamy; Gandhi, Milind; Nance, Bryan; Meehan, Patrick; Milburn, Dave; Siddiqui, Saif; Brenz, Andrew. "Voltec Battery Design and Manufacturing". Society of Automotive Engineers – Technical Papers. doi: 10.4271/2011-01-1360. ISSN  0148-7191.
  72. ^ Gray, Tyler; Wishart, Jeffrey; Shirk, Matthew (July 2013). "2011 Chevrolet Volt VIN 0815 Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle Battery Test Results" (PDF). United States Department of Energy & Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. p. 7. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 25, 2017. Retrieved January 12, 2024.
  73. ^ Carlson, Richard B. (April 2012). "Advanced Vehicle Testing Activity Benchmark Testing of the Chevrolet Volt Onboard Charger" (PDF). Idaho National Laboratory. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 4, 2023. Retrieved January 12, 2024.
  74. ^ a b Brooke 2011, p. 97.
  75. ^ "2013 Chevy Volt Gets Slight Bumps in EV Range and MPGe Rating". Car and Driver. June 7, 2012. Archived from the original on July 30, 2021. Retrieved January 13, 2024.
  76. ^ Yvkoff, Liane (June 7, 2012). "Higher gas mileage, electric range for 2013 Chevy Volt". CNET. Archived from the original on December 5, 2022. Retrieved January 13, 2024.
  77. ^ McCormick, Rick (January 12, 2015). "The 2016 Chevy Volt can now go 50 miles on its electric battery alone". The Verge. Archived from the original on October 1, 2023. Retrieved January 13, 2024.
  78. ^ Eberle, Ulrich; von Helmolt, Rittmar (May 14, 2010). "Sustainable transportation based on electric vehicle concepts: a brief overview". Energy & Environmental Science. 3 (6): 689. doi: 10.1039/C001674H.
  79. ^ "Latest data sheds light as the Chevrolet Volt testing nears completion". Consumer Reports. August 11, 2011. Archived from the original on January 13, 2024. Retrieved January 13, 2024.
  80. ^ "Electric hybrid: Chevy Volt becomes 'the little engine that could'". The Denver Post. January 19, 2012. Archived from the original on January 13, 2024. Retrieved January 13, 2024.
  81. ^ Cunningham, Wayne (October 11, 2010). "Chevy Volt's engine more than just a generator". CNET. Archived from the original on August 22, 2023. Retrieved January 13, 2024.
  82. ^ a b c Millikin, Mike; Rosebro, Jack (October 20, 2010). "Chevy Volt Delivers Novel Two-Motor, Four-Mode Extended Range Electric Drive System; Seamless Driver Experience Plus Efficiency". Green Car Congress. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved October 21, 2010.
  83. ^ Cunningham, Wayne (April 9, 2011). "Review: Chevy's Volt". CBS News. Archived from the original on January 14, 2024. Retrieved January 14, 2024.
  84. ^ "900 Miles Reliability Report in the Chevy Volt". Popular Mechanics. October 10, 2010. Archived from the original on December 16, 2014. Retrieved October 11, 2010.
  85. ^ a b c "Opel to introduce the production version of Opel Ampera in Geneva". Green Car Congress. February 17, 2011. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved February 17, 2011.
  86. ^ Cole, Jay (August 2, 2012). "2013 Chevrolet Volt Specs Revealed. More Range, Hold Mode, And Slower Charging?". InsideEVs. Archived from the original on January 31, 2023. Retrieved January 14, 2024.
  87. ^ "2013 Chevrolet Volt Performance". U.S. News & World Report. 2013. Archived from the original on October 28, 2020. Retrieved January 14, 2024.
  88. ^ "Characterizing Energy Usage of Chevrolet Volt Versus Speed" (PDF). IEEE Sustech. August 1, 2013. p. 6. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 15, 2024.
  89. ^ Vasconcelos, D. D.; Tenório, J. A.; Botelho Jr., A. B.; Espinosa, D. C. (2023). "Circular Recycling Strategies for LFP Batteries: A Review Focusing on Hydrometallurgy Sustainable Processing". Metals. 13 (3): 543. doi: 10.3390/met13030543.
  90. ^ "Cooling fins help keep Chevrolet volt battery at ideal temperature". Phys.org. February 15, 2011. Archived from the original on June 22, 2015. Retrieved January 15, 2024.
  91. ^ "GM tweaks battery materials, pack size, SOC window to increase 2013 Chevrolet Volt EV range to 38 miles". Green Car Congress. June 7, 2012. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved January 15, 2024.
  92. ^ Voelcker, John (June 7, 2012). "2013 Chevy Volt Gets 38-Mile Electric Range, Higher 98-MPGe Rating". Green Car Reports. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved June 9, 2012.
  93. ^ "GM tweaks battery materials, pack size, SOC window to increase 2013 Chevrolet Volt EV range to 38 miles". Green Car Congress. June 7, 2012. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved June 9, 2012.
  94. ^ "2013 Chevy Volt Gets Slight Bumps in EV Range and MPGe Rating". Car and Driver. June 7, 2012. Archived from the original on January 13, 2024. Retrieved January 15, 2024.
  95. ^ "EVAmerica Baseline Performance Testing, 1999 General Motors EV1 with NiMH Batteries" (PDF). US Department of Energy (DOE), Idaho National Laboratory (INL), Advanced Vehicle Testing Activity (AVTA). July 30, 2002. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 17, 2004. Retrieved October 8, 2009.
  96. ^ "EVAmerica Baseline Performance Testing, 1997 General Motors EV1 with PbA Batteries" (PDF). US Department of Energy (DOE), Idaho National Laboratory (INL), Advanced Vehicle Testing Activity (AVTA). August 2, 2002. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 17, 2004. Retrieved October 8, 2009.
  97. ^ Sperling 2018, p. 32.
  98. ^ a b "Chevrolet Volt Battery Pack Carries Standard Eight-Year, 100,000-Mile Warranty". Green Car Congress. July 14, 2010. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved May 23, 2011.
  99. ^ Zeller, Tom Jr. (July 14, 2010). "G.M. to Offer 8-Year Guarantee for New Electric Car's Battery". The New York Times. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved July 15, 2010.
  100. ^ Cunningham, Wayne (April 4, 2011). "2011 Chevrolet Volt review: 2011 Chevrolet Volt". CNET. Archived from the original on January 13, 2024. Retrieved January 1, 2024.
  101. ^ Brooke 2011, p. 55.
  102. ^ Fogelson, Jason (November 19, 2012). "2013 Chevrolet Volt - Not Quite Electrifying". Forbes. Archived from the original on July 6, 2022. Retrieved January 16, 2024.
  103. ^ "GM Assigns Volt Production to Hamtramck in 2010". Green Car Congress. September 29, 2007. Archived from the original on July 8, 2013. Retrieved January 17, 2024.
  104. ^ Fonger, Ron (January 13, 2009). "Chevy Volt's first range-extending engines will come from Austria, not Flint". MLive Media Group. Retrieved January 15, 2009.
  105. ^ "GM to boost small engine production in 3 U.S. plants". Automotive News Europe. November 25, 2010. Retrieved January 17, 2024.
  106. ^ "GM investing $109M in Mich plants to support 1.4L Ecotec engines". Green Car Congress. May 13, 2011. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved May 19, 2011.
  107. ^ Holmes, Jake (July 30, 2010). "Chevrolet Increases Projected 2012 Volt Production Capacity by 50 Percent". Car and Driver. Archived from the original on January 17, 2024. Retrieved August 3, 2010.
  108. ^ Thompson, Chrissie (May 22, 2011). "GM expands plans for Volt production". The St. Augustine Record. Archived from the original on September 28, 2022.
  109. ^ Welch, David (December 2, 2011). "GM's Chevy Volt Will Miss 2011 Sales Target Amid Slow Growth". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on November 1, 2023. Retrieved January 17, 2024.
  110. ^ a b Jolley, David (August 4, 2011). "Opel/Vauxhall to receive 10,000 Amperas from GM next year". Automotive News Europe. Retrieved August 9, 2011.
  111. ^ a b c Bunkley, Nick (March 2, 2012). "G.M. Again Pauses Production of Chevy Volt". The New York Times. Archived from the original on November 17, 2022. Retrieved March 7, 2012.
  112. ^ a b Popely, Rick (March 2, 2012). "Will the Chevy Volt be sold in Mexico?". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on March 6, 2012. Retrieved March 7, 2012.
  113. ^ Squatriglia, Chuck (January 7, 2010). "GM Fires Up Its Chevrolet Volt Battery Factory". WIRED. Archived from the original on February 2, 2023. Retrieved January 23, 2024.
  114. ^ Colias, Mike (May 18, 2011). "GM to boost Volt output; tight supply expected this summer". Automotive News. Archived from the original on August 2, 2021. Retrieved January 26, 2024.
  115. ^ Squatriglia, Chuck (May 19, 2011). "GM Amps Up Volt Production". WIRED. Archived from the original on March 24, 2023. Retrieved January 26, 2024.
  116. ^ Dowling, Joshua (August 9, 2011). "Chevrolet Volt amps up production". Carsales. Archived from the original on January 26, 2024. Retrieved January 26, 2024.
  117. ^ Loveday, Eric (August 30, 2011). "Volt drawing strangers to Chevy into dealerships". Autoblog Green. AOL. Archived from the original on September 25, 2012. Retrieved September 8, 2011.
  118. ^ Higgins, Tim (April 4, 2012). "GM CEO Seeks to Boost Volt's Monthly Sales to 3,000". Bloomberg Markets. Archived from the original on April 4, 2012. Retrieved April 14, 2012.
  119. ^ Stevens, Matt (March 3, 2012). "GM to pause Chevy Volt production for 5 weeks". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on March 3, 2012. Retrieved March 7, 2012.
  120. ^ Healey, James (August 27, 2012). "GM suspending Chevy Volt output, retooling for Impala". USA Today. Archived from the original on December 7, 2020. Retrieved August 28, 2012.
  121. ^ Gordon-Bloomfield, Nikki (July 24, 2012). "2013 Chevrolet Volt: Already At Dealers (If You're Lucky)". Green Car Reports. Archived from the original on March 20, 2023. Retrieved January 28, 2024.
  122. ^ "Cadillac extended range electric vehicle ELR to be built at Detroit-Hamtramck". Green Car Congress. October 16, 2012. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved October 17, 2012.
  123. ^ Ross, Jeffrey (September 11, 2013). "First Cadillac ELR rolls off the line". Autoblog. AOL. Archived from the original on December 25, 2023. Retrieved May 30, 2013.
  124. ^ Jeffrey N. Ross (May 21, 2015). "Last First-Gen Chevy Volt Rolls Off The Assembly Line". Top Speed. Retrieved June 14, 2015.
  125. ^ Loveday, Eric (March 30, 2015). "Pre-Production 2016 Chevrolet Volts Now Being Built – Pricing Announcement Expected Next Month". InsideEVs. Archived from the original on January 13, 2017. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
  126. ^ King, Danny (February 24, 2012). "GM starts deliveries of 2012 HOV-lane-eligible Chevy Volts in California". Autoblog Green. AOL. Archived from the original on February 26, 2012. Retrieved February 27, 2012.
  127. ^ "2012 Volt Moves into California's HOV Fast Lane". Autoblog Green. AOL. November 16, 2011. Archived from the original on November 18, 2011. Retrieved November 17, 2011.
  128. ^ "Chevy Volt gets a Low Emissions Package for California; HOV lanes access". Green Car Congress. November 17, 2011. Archived from the original on November 18, 2023. Retrieved November 17, 2011.
  129. ^ Pollard, Tim (December 13, 2010). "Chevrolet Volt for European sale in November 2011". Car Magazine. Archived from the original on July 2, 2014. Retrieved May 20, 2010.
  130. ^ Siler, Wes (March 1, 2009). "Opel Ampera Officially Unveiled!". Jalopnik. Archived from the original on January 27, 2021.
  131. ^ Popa, Bogdan (September 18, 2009). "Frankfurt Auto Show: Opel Ampera". Autoevolution. Softpedia. Archived from the original on September 15, 2015. Retrieved February 6, 2024.
  132. ^ "Zukunft: Opel Ampera - erste Fotos und Infos" [Future: Opel Ampera - first photos and information]. Auto Straßenverkehr ( de) (in German). Archived from the original on April 2, 2009. Retrieved August 19, 2009.
  133. ^ Yanca, Jon (January 27, 2009). "2011 Opel Ampera". Car and Driver. Archived from the original on February 6, 2023. Retrieved February 6, 2024.
  134. ^ Taylor, Alun (June 25, 2010). "Vauxhall Ampera extended range e-car". The Register. Archived from the original on February 5, 2024. Retrieved February 6, 2024.
  135. ^ a b Ingram, Antony (March 4, 2011). "Chevrolet Volt and Opel Ampera: What Are The Differences?". Green Car Reports. Archived from the original on October 1, 2023. Retrieved February 7, 2024.
  136. ^ Blanco, Sebastian (May 20, 2011). "Bibendum 2011: Opel Ampera not only looks better than the Chevy Volt, it can do more, too". Autoblog Green. AOL. Archived from the original on May 22, 2011. Retrieved May 21, 2011.
  137. ^ "Vauxhall Ampera offered through Zipcar car sharing scheme". Green Car Congress. May 20, 2012. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved May 21, 2012.
  138. ^ "Opel plans 'electric' successor to Ampera plug-in hybrid". Automotive News. July 23, 2014. Archived from the original on September 28, 2023. Retrieved July 23, 2014.
  139. ^ Bolduc, Douglas (July 21, 2014). "Opel will discontinue weak-selling Ampera, sources say". Automotive News Europe. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved February 10, 2024.
  140. ^ Tesar, Martin (December 8, 2012). "First Holden Volt Now Delivered in Australia; An Owner's Story". InsideEVs. Archived from the original on June 27, 2017. Retrieved December 16, 2012.
  141. ^ "Holden Volt Hits Australia For Tests, Launch Set For Late 2012". The Motor Report. November 15, 2011. Archived from the original on March 20, 2016. Retrieved November 15, 2011.
  142. ^ "Only 49 dealers to sell Holden's Volt". The Australian. June 11, 2012. Archived from the original on February 10, 2024. Retrieved June 23, 2012.
  143. ^ Costello, Mike (April 25, 2015). "The Holden Volt is dead". Drive. Nine Digital. Archived from the original on June 24, 2023. Retrieved April 26, 2015.
  144. ^ "Holden's Volt dealers all fired up". The New Zealand Herald. June 16, 2012. Archived from the original on April 15, 2023. Retrieved June 23, 2012.
  145. ^ Madelin, Jacqui (November 18, 2012). "Holden: Charged up performer". The New Zealand Herald. Archived from the original on January 18, 2016. Retrieved December 16, 2012.
  146. ^ Dobson, Liz (July 5, 2015). "Holden Volt unplugged". Driven. Archived from the original on February 16, 2019. Retrieved February 17, 2019.
  147. ^ "Chevy Volt – 100 mpg, or 48 mpg?". U.S. News & World Report. September 8, 2008. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016.
  148. ^ Connor, Mike (September 5, 2008). "Could the EPA cripple the Chevy Volt?". Motor Trend. Motor Trend Group. Archived from the original on September 28, 2023. Retrieved February 11, 2024.
  149. ^ a b c "Volt receives EPA ratings and label: 93 MPG-e all-electric, 37 mpg gas-only, 60 MPG-e combined". Green Car Congress. November 24, 2010. Archived from the original on October 2, 2023. Retrieved November 24, 2010.
  150. ^ a b Bailey, David; Krolicki, Kevin (November 24, 2010). "Chevy Volt Tops Prius in Fuel Economy Rating". Reuters. Archived from the original on June 4, 2023. Retrieved November 24, 2010.
  151. ^ "2011 Chevrolet Volt". Fuel Economy. United States Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, and United States Environmental Protection Agency. January 6, 2011. Archived from the original on January 10, 2011. Retrieved February 11, 2024.
  152. ^ "EPA, DOT unveil the next generation of fuel economy labels". Green Car Congress. May 25, 2011. Archived from the original on December 2, 2023. Retrieved May 31, 2011.
  153. ^ "Fact Sheet: New Fuel Economy and Environment Labels for a New Generation of Vehicles". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. May 2011. Archived from the original on May 29, 2011. Retrieved May 31, 2011.
  154. ^ a b Vlasic, Bill; Bunkley, Nick (August 11, 2009). "G.M. Puts Electric Car's City Mileage in Triple Digits". The New York Times. Archived from the original on June 4, 2023. Retrieved August 11, 2009.
  155. ^ Valdes-Dapena, Peter (August 11, 2009). "Chevy Volt to get 230 mpg rating". CNN Money. Archived from the original on September 18, 2020. Retrieved August 11, 2009.
  156. ^ Sharon Silke Carty (July 14, 2010). "Chevy Volt 230-mpg forecast dead; feds work on new formula". USA Today. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved July 15, 2010.
  157. ^ Jensen, Christopher (November 11, 2011). "Chevy Volt Fire Prompts Federal Investigation into Lithium-Ion Batteries". The New York Times. Archived from the original on October 5, 2019. Retrieved November 11, 2011.
  158. ^ Green, Jeff; Welch, David; Greiling Keane, Angela (November 11, 2011). "GM Volt Fire Prompts Probe of Lithium Batteries". Bloomberg L.P. Archived from the original on December 9, 2013. Retrieved November 11, 2011.
  159. ^ Bunkley, Nick (November 25, 2011). "Formal Defect Inquiry of Volt Battery Begins". The New York Times. Archived from the original on September 7, 2023. Retrieved November 27, 2011.
  160. ^ Dobbyn, Tim (November 25, 2011). "U.S. opening formal probe into GM Volt fire risk". Reuters. Archived from the original on July 26, 2012. Retrieved November 27, 2011.
  161. ^ Bunkley, Nick (December 21, 2011). "Tsunami Reveals Durability of Nissan's Leaf". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 17, 2023. Retrieved January 2, 2012.
  162. ^ a b c d Vlasic, Bill (December 1, 2011). "G.M. Offers to Buy Back Hybrid Volts From Owners". The New York Times. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved December 4, 2011.
  163. ^ Woodyard, Chris (November 28, 2011). "GM offering loaner cars to worried Chevrolet Volt owners". USA Today. Archived from the original on February 11, 2017. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
  164. ^ Krisher, Tom (December 1, 2011). "GM offers to buy back Chevrolet Volts from fearful owners". USA Today. Associated Press. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved December 1, 2011.
  165. ^ Macaluso, Grace (December 5, 2011). "GM clarifies Volt 'buyback'". Ottawa Citizen. Archived from the original on August 18, 2013. Retrieved December 6, 2011.
  166. ^ Chrissie Thompson (December 6, 2011). "'Few dozen' owners ask GM to buy back their Chevrolet Volts". USA Today. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved December 6, 2011.
  167. ^ Jake Holmes (December 6, 2011). "Chevrolet Volt Won't Lose Top Safety Ratings During Battery Fire Investigations". Motor Trend. Archived from the original on April 29, 2013. Retrieved December 6, 2011.
  168. ^ a b Blanco, Sebastian (January 5, 2012). "Chevy Volt will receive safety enhancements, but don't call it a recall". Autoblog Green. AOL. Archived from the original on January 11, 2012. Retrieved January 5, 2012.
  169. ^ a b Bunkley, Nick (November 11, 2011). "Batteries in Electric Cars Examined After Chevy Volt Fire". The New York Times. Archived from the original on November 26, 2022. Retrieved November 11, 2011.
  170. ^ a b c Bunkley, Nick (January 5, 2012). "G.M. to Reinforce Battery in Hybrid Car". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 16, 2023. Retrieved January 5, 2012.
  171. ^ a b c "GM makes modifications to Chevrolet Volt vehicle structure and battery coolant system to further protect from delayed electrical fire after severe crash". Green Car Congress. January 5, 2012. Archived from the original on December 15, 2023. Retrieved January 5, 2012.
  172. ^ a b Voelcker, John (January 5, 2012). "Chevrolet To Offer Volt Modifications Against Battery Fire Risk". Green Car Reports. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved January 5, 2012.
  173. ^ Bunkley, Nick; Vlasic, Bill (January 20, 2012). "In Fire Investigation, Regulators Say They Found No Defect in Volt". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 15, 2023. Retrieved January 21, 2012.
  174. ^ "NHTSA concludes safety defect investigation into post-crash fire risk of the Volt". Green Car Congress. January 20, 2012. Archived from the original on December 15, 2023. Retrieved January 21, 2012.
  175. ^ Rogers, Christina (December 6, 2011). "House will hold hearings on NHTSA's silence after Volt fire". Automotive News. Archived from the original on February 25, 2021. Retrieved December 8, 2011.
  176. ^ Vlasic, Bill; Bunkley, Nick (December 7, 2011). "G.M. Re-examines Volt as Safety Concerns Rise". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 5, 2024. Retrieved December 8, 2011.
  177. ^ Wald, Matthew (June 25, 2012). "Accusations of Delay in Disclosing Volt Fire". The New York Times. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved January 26, 2012.
  178. ^ Terlep, Sharon (June 26, 2012). "GM Boosts Volt Defense as Sales Falter". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on November 10, 2023. Retrieved January 26, 2012.
  179. ^ "Innovative Chevy Volt Wins 2009 Green Car Vision Award". Green Car Journal. April 2, 2009. Archived from the original on July 22, 2009. Retrieved March 29, 2009.
  180. ^ MacKenzie, Angus. "2011 Motor Trend Car of the Year: Chevrolet Volt". Motor Trend. Motor Trend Group. Archived from the original on November 18, 2023. Retrieved November 16, 2010.
  181. ^ "2011 10Best Cars – 10Best Cars". Car and Driver. November 2010. Archived from the original on November 25, 2010. Retrieved November 24, 2010.
  182. ^ "Chevrolet Volt Electric Car is 2011 Green Car of the Year". Green Car Journal. November 18, 2010. Archived from the original on November 24, 2010. Retrieved November 18, 2010.
  183. ^ Tingwall, Eric (January 2011). "2011 Automobile of the Year: Chevrolet Volt". Automobile Magazine. Archived from the original on January 6, 2012. Retrieved November 18, 2010.
  184. ^ Whoriskey, Peter (January 11, 2011). "Chevrolet Volt named Car of the Year". The Washington Post. Associated Press. Archived from the original on January 14, 2011. Retrieved January 11, 2011.
  185. ^ Valdes-Dapena, Peter (February 15, 2011). "Leaf and Prius stomp the Volt on greenest car list". CNN Money. Archived from the original on March 29, 2023. Retrieved February 14, 2024.
  186. ^ "Best Green Cars, 2011". Mother Earth News. May 2011. Archived from the original on December 2, 2023. Retrieved February 8, 2012.
  187. ^ "The 2011 Edison Awards Winners". Edison Awards. April 7, 2011. Archived from the original on April 9, 2011. Retrieved February 14, 2024.
  188. ^ "2012 Best Resale Value Awards: Electric Car – Best Electric Car: 2012 Chevrolet Volt". Kelley Blue Book. November 16, 2011. Archived from the original on November 19, 2011. Retrieved November 17, 2011.
  189. ^ "What Car? Green Awards 2011 – Overall Winner". What Car?. September 7, 2011. Archived from the original on June 4, 2012. Retrieved February 8, 2012.
  190. ^ "Ampera wins 2012 Euro car of the year". Top Gear. BBC. March 6, 2012. Archived from the original on September 6, 2015. Retrieved February 14, 2024.
  191. ^ Squatriglia, Chuck (March 5, 2012). "Chevrolet Volt Named European Car of the Year". WIRED. Archived from the original on November 9, 2023. Retrieved November 29, 2013.
  192. ^ Loveday, Eric (August 27, 2013). "Opel Ampera Beat Tesla Model S and BMW i3 to Win "Green Mobility Trophy 2013″". InsideEVs. Archived from the original on January 18, 2016. Retrieved September 1, 2013.
  193. ^ "Chevrolet Volt Declared 2011 World Green Car". World Car of the Year. April 21, 2011. Archived from the original on April 25, 2011. Retrieved April 21, 2011.
  194. ^ "Green Engine: General Motors 1.4 litre range-extender". International Engine of the Year Award. Archived from the original on February 5, 2013. Retrieved June 17, 2012.
  195. ^ "Holden Volt wins Drive's Green Innovation Award". The International News Magazine. December 7, 2012. Archived from the original on April 19, 2013. Retrieved December 23, 2012.

Sources

Footnotes

  1. ^ The system of motors comprises one 111 kW (149 hp) unit and a less powerful 55 kW (74 hp) unit.
  2. ^ "E" stands for electric drive, and "Flex" for the various sources of electricity. [21] [22]
  3. ^ Both judges and writers voted for this; the Volt was the choice of 49 American and Canadian automobile writers, while the judges based their opinion on innovation, design, safety, handling, driver satisfaction and value.
  4. ^ The Volt received the Gold position in the Personal Transportation segment.
  5. ^ In the plug-in electric vehicle segment
  6. ^ This was awarded to both the Chevrolet Volt and Opel Ampera. They became the first US-developed automobiles to win this award.
  7. ^ In the category of "Green Engine". This award was given to both the Volt and Ampera.
  8. ^ As part of the Drive's Car of the Year Awards

External links