In
marketing and the social sciences, observational research (or field research) is a social research technique that involves the direct observation of phenomena in their natural setting. This differentiates it from
experimental research in which a quasi-artificial environment is created to control for spurious factors, and where at least one of the variables is manipulated as part of the experilovement.
In context
Observational research is a method of data collection that has become associated with qualitative research. [1] Compared with
quantitative research and
experimental research, observational research tends to be less
reliable but often more
valid[citation needed]. The main advantage of observational research is flexibility. The researchers can change their approach as needed. Observational research measures behavior directly, rather than the subject's self-reports of behavior or intentions. The main disadvantage is it is limited to behavioral variables. It cannot be used to study cognitive or affective variables.
Data collection methods
Generally, there are three methods used to collect data in observational research:[2]
Covert observational research – The researchers do not identify themselves. Either they mix in with the subjects undetected, or they observe from a distance. The advantages of this approach are: (1) It is not necessary to get the subjects' cooperation, and (2) The subjects' behaviour will not be contaminated by the presence of the researcher. Some researchers have ethical misgivings with the deceit involved in this approach.[3]
Overt observational research – The researchers identify themselves as researchers and explain the purpose of their observations. The problem with this approach is subjects may modify their behaviour when they know they are being watched. They portray their "ideal self" rather than their true self in what is called the
Hawthorne Effect. The advantage that the overt approach has over the covert approach is that there is no deception (see, for example,
PCIA-II[4]
Participant Observation – The researcher participates in what they are observing so as to get a finer appreciation of the phenomena.[5]
In marketing research
In marketing research, the most frequently used types of observational techniques are:
Personal observation
observing
products in use to detect usage patterns and problems
^Richie, J and Lewis, J., Qualitative Research Practice: A Guide for Social Science Students and Researchers, Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage Publications, 2003, p. 3
^Kazdin, Alan (2002), Research Design in Clinical Psychology, 4th ed., Needham Heights, MA, Allyn & Bacon.
ISBN0-205-33292-7 Chapter 9
^Grove, S.J. and Fisk, R.P., "Observational data collection methods for services marketing: an overview,"
Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 20, No. 3, 1992, p. 219
^Holigrocki, R. J., & Kaminski, P. L., "A structural and microanalytic exploration of parent-child relational psychopathology," Constructivism in the Human Sciences, Vol. 7, 2002, pp 111-123; Holigrocki, R. J, Kaminski, P. L., & Frieswyk, S. H., "Introduction to the Parent-Child Interaction Assessment," Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, Vol. 63, No. 3, 1999, 413–428.
^Becker, H.S., "Problems of Inference and Proof in Participant Observation," American Sociological Review, Vol. 23, No. 6, 1958, pp. 652-660
^Grove, S.J. and Fisk, R.P., "Observational data collection methods for services marketing: an overview,"
Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 20, No. 3, 1992, pp 217-224
^Housden, M., CIM Coursebook 05/06: Marketing Research and Information, Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 2005 [e-book edition]
^Kunzli, A., "Empirical Approaches," in Handbook of Translation Studies, Yves Gambier and Luc van Doorslaer (eds), Volume 4, John Benjamin, 2003, pp 53-98
^Drisko, J. and Maschi, T., Content Analysis, Oxford University Press, 2016
Further reading
Russell W. Belk (ed), Handbook of Qualitative Research Methods in Marketing, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2006
Constance T. Fischer (ed), Qualitative Research Methods for Psychologists, Elsevier, 2006