Muskogean (also Muskhogean, Muskogee) is a
Native Americanlanguage family spoken in different areas of the
Southeastern United States. Though the debate concerning their interrelationships is ongoing, the Muskogean languages are generally divided into two branches, Eastern Muskogean and Western Muskogean. Typologically, Muskogean languages are
agglutinative. One documented language,
Apalachee, is extinct and the remaining languages are critically endangered.
Genetic relationships
Family division
The Muskogean family consists of six languages that are still spoken:
Alabama,
Chickasaw,
Choctaw,
Muscogee (previously referred to as Creek),
Koasati, and
Mikasuki, as well as the now-extinct
Apalachee,
Houma, and
Hitchiti (the last is generally considered a dialect of Mikasuki).[1] "Seminole" is listed as one of the Muskogean languages in Hardy's list, but it is generally considered a dialect of Muscogee rather than a separate language, as she comments.[2]
The major subdivisions of the family have long been controversial, but the following lower-level groups are universally accepted: Choctaw–Chickasaw, Alabama–Koasati, Hitchiti–Mikasuki, and Muscogee.[3][4][5] Because Apalachee is
extinct, its precise relationship to the other languages is uncertain;
Mary Haas and
Pamela Munro both classify it with the Alabama–Koasati group.[6]
Haas's classification
For connections among these groupings, the traditional classification is that of Mary Haas and her students, such as Karen Booker, in which "Western Muskogean" (Choctaw-Chickasaw) is seen as one major branch, and "Eastern Muskogean" (Alabama-Koasati, Hitchiti-Mikasuki, and Muscogee) as another. Within Eastern Muskogean, Alabama-Koasati and Hitchiti-Mikasuki are generally thought to be more closely related to each other than to Muscogee.[7] That classification is reflected in the list below:[8][9]
A more recent and controversial classification has been proposed by
Pamela Munro. In her classification, the languages are divided into a "Southern Muskogean" branch (Choctaw-Chickasaw, Alabama-Koasati, and Hitchiti-Mikasuki) and a "Northern Muskogean" one (Muscogee). Southern Muskogean is the subdivided into Hitchiti-Mikasuki and a "Southwestern Muskogean" branch containing Alabama-Koasati and "Western Muskogean" (Choctaw-Chickasaw).[7] The classification is reflected in the list below:[10]
A third proposed classification is that of Geoffrey Kimball, who envisions a threeway split among the languages, with "Western Muskogean" (Choctaw-Chickasaw), "Eastern Muskogean" (Muscogee), and "Central Muskogean" (Alabama-Koasati and Hitchiti-Mikasuki).[11] However, Kimball's classification has not received as much support as either Haas's or Munro's.[12]
Broader relationships
Possible Muskogean languages
Several sparsely attested languages have been claimed to be Muskogean languages. George Broadwell suggested that the languages of the
Yamasee and
Guale were Muskogean.[13][14] However, William Sturtevant argued that the "Yamasee" and "Guale" data were Muscogee and that the language(s) spoken by the Yamasee and Guale people remain unknown.[15] It is possible that the Yamasee were an amalgamation of several different ethnic groups and did not speak a single language. Chester B. DePratter describes the Yamasee as consisting mainly of speakers of Hitchiti and Guale.[16] The historian Steven Oatis also describes the Yamasee as an ethnically mixed group that included people from Muskogean-speaking regions, such as the early colonial-era native towns of Hitchiti, Coweta, and Cussita.[17]
The
Pensacola and
Chatot (or Chacato) people are reported to have spoken the same Muskogean language, which may have been closely related to Choctaw.[18][19][20]
Sparse evidence indicates that a Muskogean language was spoken by at least some of the people of the paramount chiefdom of
Cofitachequi in northeastern
South Carolina. If so, that would be the most eastern outpost of Muskogean. The people of Cofitichequi were probably absorbed by nearby
Siouan and
Iroquoian speakers in the late 17th century.[21]
A vocabulary of the
Houma may be another underdocumented Western Muskogean language or a version of
Mobilian Jargon. Mobilian Jargon is a pidgin based on Western Muskogean.
The best-known connection proposed between Muskogean and other languages is
Mary Haas'
Gulf hypothesis, in which she conceived of a macrofamily comprising Muskogean and a number of
language isolates of the southeastern US:
Atakapa,
Chitimacha,
Tunica, and
Natchez. While well-known, the Gulf grouping is now generally rejected by historical linguists.[13][22] A number of Muskogean scholars continue to believe that Muskogean is related to Natchez.[23]
Features
Nouns
Most family languages display lexical accent on nouns and
grammatical case, which distinguishes the nominative from the oblique. Nouns do not obligatorially inflect for gender or number.
Verbs
Muskogean verbs have a complex
ablaut system; the verbal stem almost always changes depending on aspect; less commonly, it is affected by tense or modality. In Muskogean linguistics, the different forms are known as "grades".
Verbs mark for first and second person, as well as agent and patient (Choctaw and Chickasaw also mark for dative). Third-persons (he, she, it) have a null-marker.
Plurality of a noun agent is marked by either affixation on the verb or an innately plural verbal stem:
Pluralization via affixation, Choctaw:
ishimpa
ish-impa
2SG.
NOM-eat
ish-impa
2SG.NOM-eat
"you [sg.] eat"
hashimpa
hash-impa
2PL.
NOM-eat
hash-impa
2PL.NOM-eat
"you [pl.] eat"
Innately-numbered verbal stems, Mikasuki:
łiniik
run.
SG
łiniik
run.SG
"to run (singular)"
palaak
run.
PAU
palaak
run.PAU
"to run (several)"
mataak
run.
PL
mataak
run.PL
"to run (many)"
Vocabulary
Below is a list of basic vocabulary in five Muskogean languages from Broadwell (1992):[24]
Muskogean basic vocabulary from by Broadwell (1992)
gloss
Chickasaw
Choctaw
Alabama
Mikasuki
Muscogee
all
mõma
mõma
óyha
maamos-
omalka
ashes
hottok
hitokchobi
histo
tolhambi
iisso
belly
ittakoba'
iffoka
ikfi
lampi
nalhki
big
ishto
chito
coba
coob-
lhakkii
bird
foshi'
hoshi
foosi
foosi
foswa
bite
kisili
kopooli
kachalhlhi
kabalikci
akkita
black
losa
losa
loca
looci
lasti
blood
issish
issish
lhakhani
picikci
caati
bone
foni'
foni
cokfoni
-fooni
iffoni
breast
ip shik
ip shik
pisi
owaaci
hokpi
burn
lowa
lowah
libatli
yill-
noklhita
claw
iyyakchosh
iyyakchosh
iyyaksi
iiyakoosi
ilinkososwa
cloud
hoshonti
hoshõti
onoolici
hosoti
aholocii
cold
kapassa
kapassa
kasatka
kapaali
kasappi
come
minti
m ti
ila
ont-
atita
die
illi
illi
illi
il-
ilita
dog
ofi'
ofi
ifa
iifi
ifa
drink
ishko
ishko
isko
isk-
iskita
dry
shila
shila
solotka
sokook-
kalhpii
ear
haksibis
haksobish
hakco
hacoobi
hakco
earth
yakni'
yakni
ihaani
yakni
iikana
eat
impa
pa
ipa
imp-
hompita
egg
akankoshi'
akãkoshi
akaakocóòsi
onaasi
costaki
eye
ishkin
nishkin
ittilhi
iti
tolhwa
fat (grease)
niha
bila
nitokci
niihi
nihaa
fire
lowak
lowak
tikba
iiti
tootka
fish
nani'
nani
lhalho
lhaalhi
lhalho
fly, to
wakaa
hika
wakayka
yakaal-
tamkita
foot
iyyi'
iyyi
iyyi
iyi
ili
full
kayya
kayya
kayya
labakni
fackita
give
ima
ima
inka
iik-
imita
good
chokma
achokma
kano
hiilhi
h lhi
green
okchamali
okchamaali
okcakko
honotbitalakci
laani
hair
pãshi'/hishi'
pãshi/hishi
hissi
tokisi
issi
hand
ilbak
ibbak
ilbi
ilbi
inki
head
ishkobo'
noshkobo
isbakko
yoosi
ika
hear
hánglo
haklo
haalo
hakl-
pohita
heart
chõkash
chõkash
conoska
conosbi
fiiki
horn
lapish
lapish
lapihci
lap-i
yapi
I
ano'
ano
ana
aani
ani
kill
abi
abi
ibi
ill c
iliicita
knee
iyyinto'lhka'
iyyi kalaaha
ittôlhpa
tolhpi
tolhkowa
know
ithána
ikhana
sobayli
ataalh
kilhlhita
lie down, to
tí'wa
talaaya
baláàli
talaal
wakkita
liver
salakha
salakha
illopi
lopi
lopi
long
falaa
falaaya
baski
backi
capki
louse
issap
issap
icha
hicahci
icka
man
hattak nakni'
hattak nakni
naani
nakni
honanwa
many
lawa
lawa
lawa
aconki
solkii
meat (flesh)
nipi'
nipi
nipo
akni
apiswa
mountain
onchaba
habik
bokkoscaaha
iikanhalwii
mouth
iti
itialbi
icokhalbi
ici
cokwa
name
holhchifo
hohchifo
holcifa
hocilki
hocifka
neck
nokhistap
ikkõla
nokbi
nokbi
nokwa
new
himitta
himmona
hahpa
himaci
mocasi
night
oklhili'
ninak
tanka
niilhaki
nilhii
nose
ibichchala'
ibishakni
ibisaani
ibi
yopoo
not
ki'yo
kiiyo
mánko
maati
monks
one
chaffa
achaffa
caffaaka
lhaamin
hamkin
person (human)
hattak
hattak
aati
yaati
isti
rain
omba
õba
oyba
okoob-
oskita
red
homma
homma
homma
kitisci
caati
road (path)
hina'
hina
hini
hini
nini
root
haksish
hakshish
assikci
aski
yalomka
round
lhibokta
kalaaha
bonotka
polocki
polooki
say
aachi
aachi
manka
kaac
maakita
sand
shinok
shinok
sanco
samooci
oktaaha
see
p sa
p sa
hicha
hica
hicita
seed
nihi'
nihi
hilhikci
yiilhi
nilhka
sit
bínni'li
biniili
cokóòli
cokool-
leykita
skin
hakshop
hakshop
affakci
halbi
halhpi
sleep
nosi
nosi
noci
nooc-
nocita
small
iskanno'si
osi
cinoofa
wink-
cotki
smoke
shobohli
shobohli
sobotli
ockoci
ikkoci
stand
híkki'ya
hikiiya
lokóòli
lokooka
hoylhita
star
foshik
fichik
hociilhi
owaaciki
kocacampa
stone
tali'
tali
tali
tali
cato
sun
hashi'
hashi
hasi
haasi
hasi
swim
yopi
okshiniili
oohapka
opahk-
omeyyita
tail
hasimbish
has bis
haci
haaci
haci
that
yamma
ma
akki
ma
ma
this
yappa
pa
ya
ya
ya
thou
ishno'
chishno
isna
cihn-
ciimi
tongue
isõlash
ittõlas
icoolaksi
cokolaasi
tolaaswa
tooth
noti'
noti
innati
-nooti
noti
tree
itti'
itti
itto
ahi
ito
two
toklo
toklo
tôklo
toklan
hokkoolin
walk
nõwa
nowa
ciyahli
cayahl
yakapita
warm (hot)
lashpa
lashpa
ikba
hãyyi
hayyita
water
oka'
oka
oki
ooki
oywa
we
poshno'
pishno
posna
pohni
poomi
what
nanta
natah
náàsi
naaki
naaki
white
tohbi
tohbi
hatka
hatki
hatki
who
kata
katah
náksi
noolh-
isteyma
woman
ihoo
ohooyo
tayyi
tayki
hoktii
yellow
lakna
lakna
laana
lakni
laanii
Proto-language
Proto-Muskogean
Reconstruction of
Muskogean languages
Phonology
Proto-Muskogean is reconstructed as having the consonants (given in
IPA transcription):[25]
The phonemes reconstructed by Haas as */x/ and */xʷ/ show up as /h/ and /f/ (or /ɸ/[26]), respectively, in all Muskogean languages;[27] they are therefore reconstructed by some as */h/ and */ɸ/.[10][28]*/kʷ/ appears as /b/ in all the daughter languages except
Muscogee for which it is /k/ initially and /p/ medially. The value of the proto-phoneme conventionally written ⟨θ⟩ (or ⟨N⟩) is unknown;[29] it appears as /n/ in Western Muskogean languages and as /ɬ/ in Eastern Muskogean languages. Haas reconstructed it as a voiceless /n/ (that is, */n̥/), based partly on presumed cognates in
Natchez.[10][30]
Lexicon
Proto-Muskogean lexical reconstructions by Booker (2005) are as follows.
^Oatis, Steven J. (2004). A Colonial Complex: South Carolina's Frontiers in the Era of the Yamasee War, 1680–1730. University of Nebraska Press.
ISBN0-8032-3575-5.
Booker, Karen. (2005). "Muskogean Historical Phonology." In Hardy, Heather Kay and Scancarelli, Janine (eds.), Native languages of the Southeastern United States, 246–298. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN0-19-509427-1.
Coker, William S. (1999) "Pensacola, 1686-1821." in Judith Anne Bense. (1999) Editor. Archaeology of colonial Pensacola. University Press of Florida.
ISBN0-8130-1661-4 Found at
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Crawford, James M. (Ed.). (1975a). Studies in Southeastern Indian Languages. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press.
Crawford, James M. (1975b). "Southeastern Indian Languages". In Crawford (ed.) 1975, pp. 1–120.
Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). Languages. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution.
ISBN0-16-048774-9.
Haas, Mary (1951). "The Proto-Gulf word for water (with notes on Siouan–Yuchi)". International Journal of American Linguistics17: 71–79.
Haas, Mary. (1952). "The Proto-Gulf word for 'land' (with notes on Proto-Siouan)". International Journal of American Linguistics18:238–240.
Haas, Mary. (1973). "The Southeast". In
T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Linguistics in North America (part 2, pp. 1210–1249). The Hague: Mouton.
Hardy, Heather. (2005). "Introduction". In Hardy & Scancarelli 2005, pp. 69–74.
Hardy, Heather & Janine Scancarelli. (2005). Native Languages of the Southeastern United States. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
Martin, Jack B. & Pamela Munro. (2005). "Proto-Muskogean Morphology". in Hardy & Scancarelli eds., pp. 299–320
Milanich, Jerald T. (1995). Florida Indians and the Invasion from Europe. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida.
ISBN0-8130-1360-7
Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN0-521-23228-7 (hbk);
ISBN0-521-29875-X.
Sebeok, Thomas A. (Ed.). (1973). Linguistics in North America (parts 1 & 2). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hague: Mouton. (Reprinted as Sebeok 1976).
Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978–present). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1–20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1–3, 16, 18–20 not yet published).
Sturtevant, William C. (1994). "The Misconnection of Guale and Yamasee with Muskogean". International Journal of American Linguistics60:139–148.
Swanton, John Reed. (1952) The Indian Tribes of North America. Found at
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