Muḥarram (
Arabic: ٱلْمُحَرَّم) is the first month of the
Islamic calendar, and one of the four sacred months of the year when warfare is banned. The tenth of Muharram is known as
Ashura, an important day of commemoration in
Islam. For
SunniMuslims, the day marks the
parting of the Red Sea by
Moses and the salvation of the
Israelites, celebrated through supererogatory
fasting and other acceptable expressions of joy. By contrast, Ashura is a day of mourning for
Shia Muslims, who annually commemorate the death of
Husayn ibn Ali, grandson of the
Islamic prophetMuhammad and the third
Shia imam. Husayn was killed, alongside most of his relatives and his small retinue, in the
Battle of Karbala in 680
CE against the army of the
Umayyad caliphYazid ibn Mu'awiya (
r. 680–683). The Shia rituals span the first ten days of Muharram, culminating on Ashura with mourning processions in Shia cities. Also in Muharram, the
Aqsa mosque in
Jerusalem was initially set as the direction of prayer for early Muslims.
Origins
Muharram (
lit.'sacred') is the first month of the
Islamic calendar, with (at most) thirty days. Warfare in Muharram is forbidden and it has been so since before the advent of
Islam.[1] The word Muharram is short for "Muharram Safar" (
lit.'sacred Safar'), which distinguishes in the ancient
Arab calendar between Safar I, which was sacred, and Safar II, which was not. Over time, however, the adjective Muharram itself became the name of the first month of the year.[1]
Tenth of Muharram is known as
Ashura, an important day of commemoration in Islam. For
SunniMuslims, Ashura marks the
parting of the Red Sea by
Moses and the salvation of the
Israelites.[2][3] Also on this day,
Noah disembarked from the
Ark,[3] God forgave
Adam, and
Joseph was released from prison, among various auspicious events on Ashura in Sunni tradition.[4] Ashura is celebrated in Sunni Islam through supererogatory
fasting, and also other pious acts and acceptable expressions of joy.[4][4] In some Sunni communities, the annual Ashura festivities include carnivals, bonfires, and special dishes,[5][6] even though some Sunni scholars have criticized such practices.[4][7]
By contrast, for
Shia Muslims, Ashura is a day of mourning as they commemorate the death of
Husayn ibn Ali, grandson of the
Islamic prophetMuhammad and the third
Shia imam.[8][9] Husayn refused on moral grounds to pledge his allegiance to the
Umayyad caliphYazid ibn Mu'awiya (
r. 680–683) and was subsequently killed, alongside most of his male relatives and his small retinue, by the Umayyad army in the
Battle of Karbala on Ashura 61
AH (680
CE).[10][11] Among the Shia minority, mourning for Husayn is viewed as an act of protest against oppression, and as such a struggle for God (jihad).[12][13] Mourners also hope to secure the intercession of Husayn in the afterlife.[14][15] Ashura is observed annually through mourning gatherings, processions, and dramatic reenactments.[16][17]
Timing
The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar, and months begin when the first crescent of a new moon is sighted. Since the lunar year (of twelve
lunar months) is eleven or twelve days shorter than the
solar year[18] (the lunar calendar having a mean synodic month of 29.53059 days or 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes and 3 seconds), Muharram days are different in consecutive solar years.[19]
Battle of Karbala
2 Muharram: Arrival of Husayn ibn Ali in
Karbala,
Iraq, in 680. On their way to the nearby
Kufa, Husayn and his small caravan were intercepted by the Umayyad army and eventually forced to camp in the desert lands of Karbala, away from water and fortifications.[10]
7 Muharram: The Umayyad army cut off Husayn's access to the drinking water of the nearby
Euphrates river.[20] Under the siege, Husayn's camp suffered from thirst and hunger in the coming days.[21][22][23]
9 Muharram (
Tasu'a): Negotiations between Husayn and the Umayyads failed on this day in 680. The Umayyad commander
Umar ibn Sa'd (
d. 686) was set to attack after the afternoon prayer on Tasu'a but was persuaded to delay the confrontation until the following day.[24][10] Husayn and his men spent the night in prayer.[25][26]
10 Muharram (Ashura): The Battle of Karbala was fought on this day in 680. Husayn and most of his male relatives and his small retinue were slaughtered by the Umayyad army by the end of the day. After the battle, the women and children in Husayn's camp were taken prisoner and marched to the Umayyad capital
Damascus in
Syria.[27]
Other Islamic events
1–10 Muharram: Most mourning rituals for Karbala take place during the first ten days of Muharram, culminating on the tenth with processions in major Shia cities.[28][29]
16 Muharram: On this day, the Islamic prophet Muhammad set the
Aqsa mosque in
Jerusalem as the qibla, towards which early Muslims prayed.[1] This was superseded later by the ancient
Ka'ba sanctuary in
Mecca in connection with verse 2:144 of the
Quran, the central religious text in Islam.[36]
17 Muharram: Arrival of the "people of the elephant" in Mecca, a reference to al-Fil (
lit.'the elephant'), a surah (chapter) in the Quran.[1]
Beverley, J.A. (2011). "Ashura". In Gordon Melton, J. (ed.). Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations. ABC-CLIO. pp. 47–49.
ISBN9781598842050.
Blank, J. (2001). Mullahs on the Mainframe: Islam and Modernity Among the Daudi Bohras. University of Chicago Press.
ISBN9780226056760.
Calmard, J. (1987).
"'Azādārī". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. III/2. pp. 174–177.
Pinault, D. (2000). "Zaynab bin 'Ali and the Place of the Women of the Households of the First Imāms in Shī'īte Devotional Literature". In Hambly, G. (ed.). Women in the Medieval Islamic World: Power, Patronage, and Piety. Macmillan.
ISBN9780333800355.