This article should specify the language of its non-English content, using {{
lang}}, {{
transliteration}} for transliterated languages, and {{
IPA}} for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate
ISO 639 code. Wikipedia's
multilingual support templates may also be used.See why.(October 2021)
This is a list of languages in the
Indo-European language family. It contains a large number of individual languages, together spoken by roughly half the world's population.
Numbers of languages and language groups
The
Indo-European languages include some 449 (
SIL estimate, 2018 edition[1]) languages spoken by about 3.5 billion people or more (roughly half of the world population). Most of the major languages belonging to language branches and groups in
Europe, and western and southern
Asia, belong to the Indo-European
language family. This is thus the biggest language family in the world by number of mother tongue speakers (but not by number of languages: by this measure it is only the 3rd or 5th biggest). Eight of the top ten biggest languages, by number of native speakers, are Indo-European. One of these languages, English, is the de facto world
lingua franca, with an estimate of over one billion second language speakers.
Indo-European language family has 10 known branches or subfamilies, of which eight are living and two are extinct. Most of the subfamilies or linguistic branches in this list contain many subgroups and individual languages. The relationships between these branches (how they are related to one another and branched from the ancestral proto-language) are a matter of further research and not yet fully known. There are some individual Indo-European languages that are unclassified within the language family; they are not yet classified in a branch and could constitute a separate branch.
The 449 Indo-European languages identified in the
SIL estimate, 2018 edition,[1] are mostly living languages. If all the known extinct Indo-European languages are added, they number more than 800 or close to one thousand. This list includes all known Indo-European languages, living and extinct.
What constitutes a language?
The distinction between a language and a dialect is not clear-cut and simple: in many areas there is a
dialect continuum, with transitional dialects and languages. Further, there is no agreed standard criterion for what amount of differences in
vocabulary,
grammar,
pronunciation and
prosody are required to constitute a separate language, as opposed to a mere dialect.
Mutual intelligibility can be considered, but there are closely related languages that are also mutual intelligible to some degree, even if it is an asymmetric intelligibility. Or there may be cases where between three dialects, A, B, and C, A and B are mutually intelligible, B and C are mutually intelligible, but A and C are not. In such circumstances grouping the three dielects becomes impossible. Because of this, in this list, several dialect groups and some individual dialects of languages are shown (in italics), especially if a language is or was spoken by a large number of people and over a large land area, but also if it has or had divergent dialects.
Summary of historical development
The ancestral population and language,
Proto-Indo-Europeans that spoke
Proto-Indo-European, are estimated to have lived about 4500 BCE (6500 BP). At some point in time, starting about 4000 BCE (6000 BP), this population expanded through
migration and
cultural influence. This started a complex process of population blend or population replacement,
acculturation and
language change of peoples in many regions of western and southern
Eurasia.[2] This process gave origin to many languages and branches of this language family.
By around 1000 BCE, there were many millions of Indo-European speakers, and they lived in a vast geographical area which covered most of western and southern
Eurasia (including western
Central Asia).
In the following two millennia the number of speakers of Indo-European languages increased even further.
Indo-European languages continued to be spoken in large land areas, although most of western Central Asia and Asia Minor were lost to other language families (mainly Turkic) due to Turkic expansion, conquests and settlement (after the middle of the first millennium AD and the beginning and middle of the second millennium AD respectively) and also to Mongol invasions and conquests (which changed Central Asia ethnolinguistic composition). Another land area lost to non-Indo-European languages was today's Hungary, due to Magyar/Hungarian (Uralic language speakers) conquest and settlement.
However, from about AD 1500 onwards, Indo-European languages expanded their territories to
North Asia (
Siberia), through
Russian expansion, and
North America,
South America,
Australia and
New Zealand as the result of the age of
European discoveries and European conquests through the expansions of the Portuguese, Spanish, French, English and the Dutch. (These peoples had the biggest continental or maritime empires in the world and their countries were major powers.)
The contact between different peoples and languages, especially as a result of
European colonization, also gave origin to the many
pidgins,
creoles and
mixed languages that are mainly based in Indo-European languages (many of which are spoken in island groups and coastal regions).
Late Proto-Indo-European (Last version of indo-European as a spoken language before splitting into several languages that originated in the regional dialects that diverged in time, and in space, with
Indo-European migrations; these languages were the direct ancestors of today's subfamilies or "branches" of descendant languages) (larger clades of Indo-European than the individual subfamilies or the way individual subfamilies are related to each other are both as-of-yet unresolved issues)
Dating the split-offs of the main branches
Although all Indo-European languages descend from a
common ancestor called
Proto-Indo-European, the kinship between the subfamilies or branches (large groups of more closely related languages within the language family), that descend from other more recent
proto-languages, is not the same because there are subfamilies that are closer or further, and they did not split-off at the same time, the affinity or kinship of Indo-European subfamilies or branches between themselves is still an unresolved and controversial issue and being investigated.
However, there is some consensus that Anatolian was the first group of Indo-European (branch) to split-off from all the others and Tocharian was the second in which that happened.[3]
Using a mathematical analysis borrowed from evolutionary biology,
Donald Ringe and
Tandy Warnow propose the following tree of Indo-European branches:[4]
The list below follows
Donald Ringe,
Tandy Warnow and Ann Taylor classification tree for Indo-European branches.[5] quoted in Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse, the Wheel and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World, Princeton University Press.
Kalasmian / Kalašma / Kalasmaic (spoken in the Land of
Kalašma, northwestern
Anatolia, to the northwest of the Land of
Hatti and west of the Land of
Pala, seems to be closer to
Luwian than to
Palaic, possibly a member of the Luwic Anatolian group)[27][28][29][30]
North-Tocharian (it was originally spoken in many areas of the
Tarim Basin and
Turpan Depression) (according to several linguists[32] the languages are inaccurately called "Tocharian" in a misnomer because they view "Tocharian" as a name synonymous with
Bactrian, an
Iranian language, however there are other linguists who think that the name was correctly applied[33][34] and only later would Tocharians replace their original language with an Iranian one.)
Southern Latin (retention of archaic features in the periphery of the Latin speaking world)
Insular Latin (not Insular Romance) (Latin that was spoken by the insular populations of
Corsica and
Sardinia)
Corsican Latin
Sardinian Latin
African Latin (not African Romance) (West
North Africa, in many regions of today's
Maghreb) (Latin that was spoken by the
Roman Africans in North Africa, especially in the
Africa province, the origin of the name "Africa" that was later applied to the whole continent)
Latin Sociolects (most provinces)
Imperial Latin (Sociolect used by ruling class Romans)
Late Vulgar Latin (sermo vulgaris / Lingua Romanica – "Roman language" / "Romanic language", the origin of the term "Romance" applied to the languages) (
Vulgar Latin, especially
Late Vulgar Latin is synonymous with
Proto-Romance or
Common Romance,
Latin through its variant Vulgar Latin, is the Proto-language or common ancestor language of
Romance sometimes known as New Latin languages or Neo-Latin languages especially in the nineteenth century) (Latin, mainly including its variant, Vulgar Latin, had several regional dialects that over time developed towards separate but closely related
Romance languages) (extinct)
Romance, or Neo- / New Latin languages (languages that evolved from
Latin regional dialects that over time developed towards separate but closely related languages)
Reggino (in the
Metropolitan City of Reggio Calabria, especially on the Scilla–Bova line, and excluding the areas of Locri and Rosarno which represent the first isogloss which divide Sicilian from the continental varieties)
Sicilian / Sicilian Proper (Sicilianu / Lu Sicilianu)
Western Sicilian (Palermitano in
Palermo, Trapanese in
Trapani, Central-Western Agrigentino in
Agrigento)
Eastern Non-Metafonetic (in the area including the
Metropolitan City of Catania, the second largest city in Sicily, as Catanese, and the adjoining area within the Province of Syracuse)
Sardinia Regional Italian (
Sardinian substrate) (regional variety of Italian, not to be confused with the substrate language or languages)
Pistoiese (spoken in the city of
Pistoia and nearest zones, some linguists include this dialect in Fiorentino)
Lucchese (spoken in
Lucca and nearby hills: Lucchesia)
Pesciatino / Valdinievolese (spoken in the
Valdinievole zone, in the cities of
Pescia and
Montecatini Terme) (some linguists include this dialect in Lucchese)
Versiliese (spoken in the historical area of
Versilia)
Corsican-Sardinian (languages of Corsican origin with strong Sardinian substrate)
Gallurese (Gadduresu) (divergent enough from
Corsican to be considered a separate language, although closely related to it)
Castellanese
Sassarese (Sassaresu / Turritanu) (divergent enough from
Corsican to be considered a separate language, although closely related to it, has a stronger Sardinian substrate)
Eastern Coastal Venetian / Istro-Dalmatian Venetian (spoken in several islands and areas of the
Adriatic Sea eastern coast) (spoken by majorities in
Grado and
Trieste, by minorities in
Fiume or
Rijeka and parts of
Istria and
Dalmatia)
Northern Venetian / North-Central Destra Piave (from
Piave river right banks, to the west of Piave, a river that flows from north towards south) (western
Province of Treviso and southern
Province of Belluno)
Eastern Venetian / Northern Sinistra Piave (from
Piave river left banks, to the east of Piave, a river that flows from north towards south) (eastern
Province of Treviso and most of the
Province of Pordenone)
Pordenonese
Bellunese
Northern Venetian diaspora dialects
Pontine Marshes Venetian (in parts of the
Pontine Marshes, or
Agro Pontino, southern
Lazio, formed by migration of Venetian speakers to the Pontine Marshes in the middle 20th Century, different from native Southern Laziale)
Modenese (spoken in the
Province of Modena, although Bolognese is more widespread in the Castelfranco area. In the northern part of the province of Modena, the lowlands around the town of Mirandola, a Mirandolese sub-dialect of Modenese is spoken)
Reggiano (spoken in the
Province of Reggio Emilia, although the northern parts, such as Guastalla, Luzzara and Reggiolo, of the province are not part of this group and closer to Mantovano)
Parmigiano (spoken in the
Province of Parma. Those from the area refer to the Parmigiano spoken outside of Parma as Arioso or Parmense, although today's urban and rural dialects are so mixed that only a few speak the original. The language spoken in Casalmaggiore in the Province of Cremona to the north of Parma is closely related to Parmigiano)
Piacentino (spoken west of the River Taro in the
Province of Piacenza and on the border with the province of Parma. The variants of Piacentino are strongly influenced by Lombard, Piedmontese, and Ligurian)
Mantuan (Mantovano) (spoken in all but the very north of the
Province of Mantua in
Lombardy. It has a strong Lombard influence)
Vogherese (Pavese-Vogherese) (spoken in the
Province of Pavia in
Lombardy, it is closely related phonetically and morphologically to Piacentino, it is also akin to Tortonese)
Lombard (Romance Lombard) (Lombard / Lumbaart) (Italo-Roman people of today's
Northern Italy, who called their own language simply as "Latin" or "Roman" / "Romance", later adopted the adjective "Lombard" – "Lombard" / "Lumbaart" for the language based on the name of most of their
ruling elite – the
Lombards, a
Germanic people that conquered most of the ancient Roman province called
Gallia Cisalpina, most of today's
Northern Italy and after that most of
Italy, and founded the
Lombard Kingdom)
Oïl (Northern Gallo-Romance) (Langues d'Oïl) (
dialect continuum) (
Gallo-Roman people of today's Northern
France, who called their own language simply as "Latin" or "Roman"/"Romans" or even "Langue d'Oïl", later adopted the adjective "French" – "François"/"Français" for the language based on the name of most of their
ruling elite – the
Franks, a
Germanic people that conquered most of the ancient Roman province called
Gallia and founded the
Frankish Empire)
Old French (Franceis / François / Romanz) (extinct) (
Gallo-Roman people of today's Northern France, who called their own language simply as "Latin" or "Roman"/"Romance" or even "Langue d'Oïl", later adopted the adjective "French" – "François"/"Français" for the language based on the name of most of their
ruling elite – the
Franks, a
Germanic people that conquered most of the ancient Roman province called
Gallia and founded the
Frankish Empire)
Louisiana French (
Cajun French) (Français Louisianais) (divergent enough to be considered a separate although closely related language to the other
American French varieties) (Cadien > Cajun;
palatalization of di [dj] as dj [dʒ] sounded almost as Cajun in English hence the name)
Missouri French / Illinois Country French ("Paw-Paw French") (Français du Pays des Illinois / Français Vincennois / Cahok / Français du Missouri) (nearly extinct)
Newfoundland French (Français Terre-Neuvien) (community of speakers came directly from France in the late 1800s and early 1900s, it is not
Québécois or of Québécois descend) (nearly extinct)
Frenchville French (Français de Frenchville) (community of speakers came directly from France in the 1800s, it is not
Québécois or of Québécois descend) (nearly extinct)
Northwest Oïl (archaic North Gallo-Romance language, less
palatalisation in comparison with Central, Eastern and Western Oïl languages) (north of
Joret line)
Picard (Picard / Chti / Chtimi / Rouchi / Roubaignot) (archaic North Gallo-Romance language, less
palatalization in comparison with Central, Eastern and Western Oïl languages) (north of
Joret line)
Walloon (Walon) (although it is closely related to
Picard and a North Oïl language, it is south of
Joret line)
Western Waloon / Wallo-Picard (Walo-Picård) – the dialect closest to French proper and with a strong Picard influence, spoken in Charleroi (Tchårlerwè), Nivelles (Nivele), and Philippeville (Flipvile)
Central Waloon / Namurois (Walon do Mitan) – spoken in Namur (Nameur), the Wallon capital, and the cities of Wavre (Åve) and Dinant
Eastern Waloon / Liégeois (Walon do Levant) – in many respects the most conservative and idiosyncratic of the dialects, spoken in Liège (Lidje), Verviers (Vervî), Malmedy (Måmdi), Huy (Hu), and Waremme (Wareme)
Southern Waloon / Wallo-Lorrain (Walon Nonnrece) – close to the Lorrain and to a lesser extent Champenois languages, spoken in Bastogne, Marche-en-Famenne (Måtche-el-Fåmene), and Neufchâteau (Li Tchestea), all in the Ardennes region.
Mentonasc (in and around
Menton) (sometimes considered as transitional between
Ligurian and
Occitan, however most scholars consider it to be an
Occitan dialect)
Gavot (Gavòt) (in the western Occitan Alps, which are located in southeast
France)
East Iberian Romance (more related to the
Occitandialect continuum, has an
Iberian substrate, that also contributes to differentiate it from the other Hispano-Romance languages that are called "Iberian Romance", although, except for, partially,
Aragonese, they do not have an
Iberian substrate but rather a
Hispano-Celtic,
Lusitanian or a
Tartessian one) (it is a true Iberian Romance language by its Pre-Romance substrate language –
Iberian, that in the
Pre-Roman past was roughly spoken in the Catalan language area – the east coastal region of
Iberian Peninsula)
Southern Iberian Romance / Southern Hispano-Romance (
dialect continuum) (dialects of early
romanized regions, it was part of the
Western Romance dialects, but also had some similarities with
Italo-Dalmatian ones due to the influence of the aforementioned dialectal group)[39]
Southern Iberian Late Latin / Southern Iberian Proto-Romance (it became more differentiated after the fall of the
Western Roman Empire and the formation of the
Suebian and
Visigothic Kingdoms)[40](several dialects,
Andalusi Romance descended from it)
Andalusi Romance (formed after the Arab and Moorish conquest and the formation of
Al-Andalus under Arabic rule) (inaccurately called "
Mozarabic")[41] (لتن – לטן – Latino) (extinct) (a large
dialect continuum) (uncertain classification within
Hispano-Romance /
Ibero-Romance or even
Western Romance, it had
isoglosses and other language features in common with both Eastern and Western Hispano-Romance languages and also with both
Western Romance and
Italo-Dalmatian, it had the characteristics of a
conservative language but also had language innovations) (it had several similarities with
Aragonese, however the classification of both languages under the name "Pyrenean" is inaccurate because both languages did not originate in the
Pyreneans Mountains but in more southerner regions of the
Iberian Peninsula, and also because, as a
dialect continuum, some dialects were more akin to
Navarro-Aragonese but others were not) (a
Romance and not an
Arabic language, not to be confused with
Andalusi Arabic, although both languages were, more or less, spoken in the same territorial area and interacted) (it was the
vernacular language of many Hispanic
Christians, of
Hispano-Roman origin, and
Sephardic Jews that lived under
Muslim rule as
Dhimmis in
Al-Andalus where people of
Arabic origin or
Arabized people were the
ruling elite, and also was the
vernacular language of many Muslim converts of
Hispano-Roman origin; beside the dialectal variation between regions, there was also a sociological one – Christians used more Latin origin vocabulary, while Muslims used more Arabic origin vocabulary)[41]
Eastern-Central Andalusi Romance (roughly matching the territory where the Hispanic Citerior Latin had been spoken, that is, part of the ancient Roman province of
Hispania Citerior, later
Hispania Tarraconensis, later
Cartaginensis and
Tarraconensis proper Provinces, East and Centre of the
Iberian Peninsula) (it had several analogies and similarities with the languages or dialects of eastern part of the Northern Iberian Peninsula –
Aragonese and
Castilian)[39]
Eastern Andalusi Romance
Zaragozan Andalusi Romance
Valencian Andalusi Romance
Central Andalusi Romcane
Tolledan Andalusi Romance
Southern-Western Andalusi Romance (roughly matching the territory where Hispanic Ulterior Latin had been spoken, that is, part of the ancient Roman province of
Hispania Ulterior, later the ancient Roman provinces of
Baetica and
Lusitania, South and West of the
Iberian Peninsula) (it had several analogies and similarities with the languages or dialects of the western part of the Northern Iberian Peninsula, mainly
Galician–Portuguese and
Asturian-Leonese)[39]
Western Andalusi Romance / Lusitanic Andalusi Romance
Badajoz Andalusi Romance
Lisbon Andalusi Romance
Northern Iberian Romance / Northern Hispano-Romance (
dialect continuum) (dialects of later
romanized regions, it was part of the
Western Romance dialects in a higher degree than the southern ones)[39]
Northern Iberian Late Latin / Northern Iberian Proto-Romance (it became more differentiated after the fall of the
Western Roman Empire and the formation of the
Suebian and
Visigothic Kingdoms)[40](the northern varieties, already in the form of languages, expanded to the south with the
Christian Reconquest)
Old Riojan (roughly in the original area where the Romance language called "Navarro-Aragonese" originated) (extinct) (people shifted to a Riojan Castilian variety with a
Navarro-Aragonese substrate)
Aragonese (Aragonés / Luenga Aragonesa / Fabla Aragonesa) (at the present time it is only spoken in
Upper Aragon /
High Aragon or Northern Aragon, however, in the past, until late 17th and 18th centuries,
Aragonese was spoken in a much wider land area including almost all of
Aragon, except for
La Franja, Southern
Navarre, parts of
Rioja and parts of inland
Valencia Region)
Central Aragonese (roughly in the original area where the Romance language called "Navarro-Aragonese" originated) (extinct) (people shifted to an Aragonese Castilian variety with an
Aragonese substrate)
New Mexican Spanish (an old Latin American Spanish dialect with its features, not to be confuse with the more recent Southwestern United States Mexican)
Far-Eastern Leonese (Leonese of Palencia-Valladolid-Salamanca) (extinct) (in the past it was spoken in most of
Palencia,
Valladolid and
Salamanca provinces but there people shifted to a Leonese Castilian variety)
Old Extremaduran (extinct)
Old Northern Extremaduran (Artu Estremeñu) (extinct)
Astur-Leonese (Asturllionés / Astur-Llionés / Llengua Astur-Llionesa) (at the present time it is spoken in
Asturias and Northwestern
León, however, in the past, until late 17th and 18th centuries, it was spoken in a wider area, including almost all of Leon region) (Astur-Leonese dialects have eastern, central and western dialect strips from north towards south with Asturian and Leonese subdialects or variants, although there is no clear linguistic division between both because the east, central and west dialect strips have more importance than an Asturian versus Leonese or vice versa distinction, that is, a North versus South dialectal distinction)
Riba Douro Leonese (people in the lands east of
Sabor River and west of
Douro River although, by the political border, were in far eastern
Trás-os-Montes historic province of
Portugal, they were
Leonese and not
Galaico-Portuguese speakers until the 13th and 14th centuries, after which they were bilingual until the 17th and 18th centuries, in the 18th century
Portuguese replaced most of
Leonese save for
Mirandese, Mirandese is a surviving dialect of these Ribadouro Leonese dialects)
Mirandese (Mirandés / Lhengua Mirandesa) (close to Western
Astur-Leonese or even a dialect of it – Southern Western Astur-Leonese, but with
Portuguese influences as
Adstrate and
Superstrate) (recognized as a different native language in
Portugal)
Raiano (Northern villages border dialect)
Central (
Miranda do Douro town and most villages dialect, central area of Mirandese)
Sendinês (
Sendim village dialect, far southern Mirandese)
Vimioso Leonese (extinct) (once spoken in
Vimioso town and municipality)
Mogadouro Leonese (extinct) (once spoken in
Mogadouro town and municipality)
Freixo de Espada à Cinta Leonese (extinct) (once spoken in
Freixo de Espada à Cinta town and municipality)
Torre de Moncorvo Leonese (extinct) (once spoken in
Torre de Moncorvo town and municipality)
As Portelas Eastern Galician (in the west of
Sanabriacomarca – "
A Seabra" in
Galician, Northwest
Zamora Province) ("As Portelas" means "The Small Ports", "The Small Land Ports"; Port = Passage)
Central Galician (Northern Coastal Galicia and inland central Galicia of the Miño and Sil valleys)
Lower Limia Western Galician (
Lobios municipality) (Lower Limia regarding Galicia, regarding Limia river total course, most it is in Portugal, it is Upper Limia)
Fala / Fala de Xálima / Xalimego / Lagarteiru (in Eljas), Manhegu / Mañegu (in San Martín de Trevejo) and Valverdeiru (in Valverde del Fresno) (no common self name or autonym for the language) (closely related to
Galician and to
Portuguese but closer to
Galician, although bordering
Portuguese to the west, it is
Galician-like, a related language enclave to Galician more than two hundred kilometers to the south) (in far northwestern
Extremadura, southern slopes and valleys of
Xálima /
Jálama Mountain)
Northern (some features are transitional to Galician) (a typical feature of the Northern Portuguese dialects is that they have
betacism, i.e. they don't distinguish between b [b or β] and v [v] phonemes, i.e v [v] phoneme is absent)
Figueira de Castelo Rodrigo dialect (geographically in Beira Serra or Beira Transmontana Province, which was included in
Beira Alta Province, but closely related to the Transmontano dialect)
Baixo Minhoto-Duriense – Alto Beirão-Beira Serrano
Beira Serra or Beira Transmontana dialect (in the Beira Serra or Beira Transmontana Province, which was included in the
Beira Alta Province, roughly matches
Guarda District) (more features in common with Northern dialects, but in the phonetics distinguishes between b [b] and v [v] phonemes, a typical feature of the Central and Southern dialects)
Central-Southern (a typical feature of the Central and Southern Portuguese dialects is that in the phonetics they don't have
betacism, i.e. they distinguish between b [b] and v [v] phonemes, i.e. v [v] phoneme is clearly pronounced)
Coastal Central (Extremaduran Portuguese) (Português Estremenho) (Transitional Northern-Southern) (basis of
Modern Standard European Portuguese but not identical) (although in the 20th century a province in the Central Coastal Lowlands region was called
Beira Litoral, i.e. Litoral/Coastal Beira, older and traditional Beira Province was an inland province in the Highlands, while all Central Coastal Lowlands region of
Mainland Portugal, from south of the
Douro river, in the north, till the northern banks of the
Tagus river, in the south, was the province of Estremadura until the middle of the 18th century) ("Beira" name means edge, slope, mountain slope, or border, with the specific meaning of "Mountainous Borderland" or "Edge Borderland") (until the 14th century the broad or collective name for all the portuguese territories south of
Douro river was "Extremadura", i.e. "Far Border Land", the name derives from "Extrema", "Extremada" – extreme in the sense of extreme borderland, far borderland) (this name is cognate and has equivalents with the Leonese, Castilian and Aragonese Extremaduras, that were also old Borderlands at the beginning of the Christian
Reconquista) (therefore "Estremadura" and "Beira" names had the meaning of "Borderland" in the context of the Christian
Reconquista)
Northern Coastal Central (more features in common with Central and Southern dialects, but in the phonetics, some areas, mainly in
Aveiro District, don't distinguish between b [b] and v [v] phonemes, i.e. they don't have v [v] phoneme, a typical feature of the Northern dialects)
Aveiro dialect (in most of the
Aveiro District) (Portuguese District = County)
Coimbra dialect (in west
Coimbra District) (Portuguese District = County)
Southern Coastal Central (Standard European Portuguese is mainly based on this dialect with also important contribution from Coimbra, i.e. the coastal central region, the ancient and traditional Portuguese Extremadura, from north till south – Aveiro, Coimbra, Leiria, Santarem and Lisbon, is the main basis of Modern Standard European Portuguese)
Lisbon dialect (early Lisbon dialect, Lisboeta, was only spoken in
Lisbon itself and was an enclave, however today it is spoken in
Lisbon metropolitan area, and is a very widespread dialect, many dialects are under pressure and being replaced by the standard language that closely resembles Lisbon dialect)
Inland Southern Central (
Beira-Baixa-Far Northern Alto-Alentejo) (a divergent group of Portuguese dialects in phonetics and some vocabulary, it forms its own dialectal group) (its more typical phonetic feature is the presence of the vowels ö [ø] and ü [y], phonemes that don't exist in the other Portuguese dialects or other
Iberian Romance/
Hispano Romance languages and dialects but are a typical common feature of the
Gallo-Romance languages and dialects; several placenames/toponyms in
Beira Baixa, roughly
Castelo Branco County, and Far North
Alto Alentejo, North
Portalegre County, such as
Proença,
Old Occitan name of
Provence,
Ródão, from Rodano, a name for
Rhodanus river, Tolosa,
Occitan name of
Toulouse, seem to testify an old
Gallo-Romance presence of speakers in enclaves, they were assimilated to
Galician–Portuguese but left a phonetic influence in the dialect of this region;[42] in the 13th century, speakers of this dialect group also settled in Western
Algarve, at the end of the Portuguese
Reconquista; in the 15th and 16th centuries, speakers of this dialect group, mixed with speakers of other dialectal groups, settled in several islands of the Archipelagos of the
Azores and
Madeira)[42] (declining and extinct in many municipalities where it was spoken)
Far Northern Alto-Alentejo (South of
Tagus river, geographically in
Alentejo but closely related to the
Beira Baixa dialect and not to the Alentejo dialect)
Far Western Algarvian (geographically in the
Algarve but is more related to the
Beira Baixa dialect and not to the Algarvian dialect, it is an Inland Southern Central dialect enclave in Far Southwestern Mainland Portugal) (has the ü [y] phoneme but doesn't have the ö [ø] phoneme)
Southern
Southern Portuguese Extremaduran-Ribatejano
Southern Portuguese Extremaduran (traditionally in most of the Coastal
Lisbon District, except for
Lisbon itself, today is declining, being replaced by Lisbon Proper dialect in the
Lisbon metropolitan area)
Ribatejano (along
Tagus River banks) (in
Ribatejo Province) ("Ribatejo – Riba Tejo" name means "Tagus Banks", from "Riba" – River Bank and "Tejo" – the Tagus river) (in large part of
Santarém District)
Setubalense (in the
Setubal Peninsula) (its more typical phonetic feature is that it doesn't distinguish between trilled r [r] and guttural r [ʁ] i.e. r is always pronounced as guttural r [ʁ]) (overlaps and under pressure of the modern Lisbon metropolitan area dialect)
Alentejano (its more typical phonetic feature is the pronunciation of more open vowels than in Standard European Portuguese, final vowel e [e] is generally pronounced as i [i] or the [i] vowel is added after a final consonant where Standard European Portuguese doesn't have a final vowel after a consonant, and has a distinct prosody) (in South
Alto Alentejo and
Baixo Alentejo Provinces) ("Alentejo – Além Tejo" name means "Beyond
Tagus") (roughly matches south
Portalegre District and
Évora and
Beja Districts)
Algarvian (closely related to Alentejano) (in most of the
Algarve Province) (roughly matches central and eastern
Faro District)
Islander (Geographical Grouping and not a Linguistic Genealogical one) (a divergent group of Portuguese dialects in phonetics and some vocabulary, several linguistic archaisms from Middle Portuguese when the islands were settled)[43](
Azores and
Madeira didn't have native Pre-European people)
Azorean (nine dialects in the nine islands of the
Azores Archipelago, an areal grouping of dialects)
Micaelense (
São Miguel Island dialect) (its more typical phonetic feature is the presence of the vowels ö [ø] and ü [y] in its phonemes, a common phonetic feature with Inland Southern Central dialects, mainly Baixo Beirão dialect, and with the more distant
Gallo-Romance languages and dialects, it has more vowels than Standard European Portuguese and several long vowels, and it has a "French-like" prosody)[42]
Terceirense (
Terceira Island dialect) (its more typical phonetic feature is the presence of the semivowels [j] and [w] before a vowel in many words where Standard European Portuguese only has one vowel and a "singing-like" prosody)[44]
Faialense (
Faial Island dialect) (Faial island dialect is closer to Standard European Portuguese than the dialects of other islands, initial
Flemish settlers, that spoke the germanic
Flemish dialect of
Dutch, some years later were rapidly surpassed and assimilated by a big majority of Portuguese settlers that came from Coastal Central Portugal, whose dialect is the basis of European Standard Portuguese, and did not influenced Faial Island dialect)
Madeirense (
Madeira Island dialect) (its more typical phonetic feature is the pronunciation of the vowels u [u] and i [i], in many cases, as a Schwa [ə] or as [ɐ], where Micaelense and Baixo-Beirão dialects have ü [y] and the palatalization of l [l] to [λ] before i [i])
Amazonic Range (Serra Amazônica)/Deforestation Arc (Arco do Desflorestamento)
Southern / Broad Southern (one of its earlier centers, in the 16th century, was
São Vicente, in the western half of the island with the same name, closely offshore of
São Paulo State coast, in the eastern half of the island is
Santos city)
Southerner Proper (Sulista Próprio) / Gaúcho (sometimes Gaúcho is used as synonym of all Southern Proper Brazilian dialects)
Florianopolitano (Manezês) (in
Santa Catarina State Coast) (stronger influences from European Portuguese, mainly from Azorean settlers and colonists of the 18th century)
Gaúcho / Narrow Gaúcho (Gaúcho Estrito) (in all the Rio Grande do Sul State or just the South of Rio Grande do Sul State along northern border of Uruguay)
Gramostean (originally from
Gramos mountain range,
Gramosta in Aromanian, later expanded northeastward and today spoken in
language enclaves scattered in mountainous areas of northern
Greece, eastern
North Macedonia and southwestern
Bulgaria)
Standard Irish (An Caighdeán Oifigiúil) (pan-regional form)
Urban Irish (developing modern dialect in the urban areas, particularly in
Dublin)
Leinster-Connacht Irish (in Central
Ireland) (Lár – Middle, Central) (transitional characteristics between
Ulster Irish, in the north, and
Munster Irish, in the south)
West Aran Connacht Irish / Inishmore and Inishmaan Connacht Irish (in the
Aran islands of
Inishmore and
Inishmaan but not in
Inisheer where people speak a Munster Irish dialect)
Acaill (an Ulster dialect exclave mainly in
Achill Island and parts of the mainland, in
Connaught – western Ireland)
East Ulster (Ulaidh Thoir)
Meadh Irish (in
Meath) (extinct) (no longer part of the
Gaeltacht) (the only
Irish is the
Standard Irish) (most people from the two small enclaves of speakers in Meath part of the
Gaeltacht –
Baile Ghib (Gibstown) and
Ráth Chairn (Rathcarran), are not speakers of the Meadh Gaelic Irish because they came from Western Ireland –
Connemara, in
Connaught, and
County Kerry, in
Munster, in the mid 20th century)
Straits of Moyle Gaelic / North Channel Gaelic (extinct)
East Middle Highland / Grampian-Moravian Gaelic (in
Grampian / Roinn a' Mhonaidh and
Moray /
Moireibh or
Moireabh, hence the name "Moravian" for the dialect, in Northern
Lowland Scotland, where it was largely replaced by
Scots language and
Scottish English, however there are small enclaves of speakers)
Modern Athenian / Metropolitan Athenian Greek (close to
Standard Modern Greek) (not quite a Southern or Northern Greek dialect, although Standard Modern Greek is based predominantly on the southern dialects, especially those of the
Peloponnese)
Cargèse Greek (in western
Corsica coast, to the north of
Ajaccio) (extinct)
South Euboean
Peloponnese
Ionian Islands dialects
Cytherian
Zakynthian
Kefallonian / Cefallonian
Ithakan
Lefkadan
Paxian
Kerkyra / Corfu
North Epirote (in
Thesprotia,
North Epirus, Far-Southern
Albania) (although geographically in the Northwest of
Greece the dialect has more similarities with Southern Greek dialects)
Northern-Central Anatolian Greek/Northern-Central Asia Minor Greek (more divergent than Western and Southern Anatolian Greek, that were more in contact with other Greek dialects, divergent enough to be considered separate languages although closely related to
Modern Greek, they descend from
Medieval or
Byzantine Greek)
Silliot (Greek of
Sille, near
Ikonion/
Iconium, today's
Konya) (was the most divergent of the varieties of Asia Minor/Anatolian Greek)
Tsakonian (Tσακώνικα – Tsakṓnika / A Tσακώνικα γρούσσα – A Tsakṓnika gloússa) (Doric-influenced
Koine, archaic and most divergent of
Modern Greek varieties)
Upper Saxon (Obersächsisch) (in fact it is East Thuringian – Ostthüringisch, and not truly Saxon, a
North Sea Germanic descendant; what is called Upper Saxon is an
Elbe Germanic descendant, and close to
Thuringian) (roughly spoken on the Middle
Elbe river basin)
New Lusatian German (spoken in the area of settlement of the
Sorbs; influenced by the
Sorbian languages)
Schlesisch–Wilmesau
Silesian German (Lower Silesian German) (Schläsche Sproache / Schläs'sche Sproche) (mainly in
Silesia historical region, it was the majority language in
Lower Silesia until 1945) (nearly extinct)
Mountain Silesian (Gebirgsschläsche / Oberländisch) (was also spoken in
Czech Silesia) (not to be confused with
Upper Silesian which is a
West Slavic language related to
Polish)
Alzenau (Haltsnovian) (Altsnerisch / Päurisch) (spoken in the former city of Altsnau (
Hałcnów in Polish), which is now a district of
Bielsko-Biała, Poland) (nearly extinct)
Volhynian German (Wolinisch / Wolinisches Hochdeitsch) (spoken by the
Volhynian Germans) (until 1945 in scattered communities in
Volhynia, northwestern Ukraine) – the partly dialectal variety was formed with a main
Silesian German basis and lesser
Alemannic and
Swabian (part of
High German) contributions but also with a lesser Pomerelian German (part of
Low German) contribution.
Ochsenfurter Mundart: around
Ochsenfurt (
oxford - the name of the town is
cognate with
Oxford and has the same meaning: a
ford where
oxen crossed the river)
Schweinfurtisch: around
Schweinfurt (
swineford - the name of the city has the meaning of a
ford where
pigs crossed the river)
Transitional Lower East Franconian - Upper East Franconian - Area between Lower East Franconian (Unterostfränkisch) and Upper East Franconian (Oberostfränkisch): Ansbacher-, Neustädter- und Coburger Raum (in
Ansbach,
Neustdt am Main and
Coburg)
Heanzen / Burgenlandish (Burgenländisch) (spoken in
Burgenland, formerly known as
Heizenland, which was also the name of a short-lived republic – the
Republic of Heizenland, the border region between
Austria and
Hungary was mostly ethnic Austrian German, part of the land of the West Hungary Germans – Westungarn Deutsche)
North American Carinthian diaspora dialect/language
Hutterite German (Hutterisch) (New Hutterite German is Carinthian German based and not Tirolean based like Old Hutterite German) (language of the
Hutterite diaspora in the
United States and
Canada, they have their origins in
Tirol and
Carinthia, west and southern
Austria)
Galician German (Galiziendeutsch) (spoken by the
Galician Germans)
Pennsylvania German (Pennsylvania "Dutch") (Deitsch / Pennsilfaanisch Deitsch) (Pennsilfaanisch Deitsch is the self name or autonym of the language, "Deitsch" and "Dutch" are cognates but now have different meanings: one for Germanic language in a broad sense, not only for German in a narrow sense, and the other for specifically the Dutch or Nederlandic language, leading to the name Pennsylvania Dutch for the language in English due to the similarity of names)
Walddeutsch (extinct) (German dialect of the
Walddeutsche – "Forest Germans" before
Polonization and assimilation into
Poles in the 17th and 18th centuries)
Central Eastern/Mideastern (Polish–Galician–Eastern Hungarian Yiddish)
South Eastern (Ukrainian–Romanian Yiddish)
Standard Theater Yiddish (Standard form of Yiddish used in
theatrics)
North Eastern / Litvish (Lithuanian–Belarusian) (centered in modern-day
Lithuania,
Belarus, and most of
Latvia, it was also spoken in portions of northeastern Poland, northern and eastern Ukraine and along
Dnieper river valley and
western Russia; many of these regions belonged to the
Grand Duchy of Lithuania, hence the name) (it was the biggest Eastern Yiddish dialect by number of speakers and the most
prestigious)
Middle Dutch (Nederlands Dietsch – Lowland Dutch or Lowland German/Germanic in a broad sense)
Dutch / Nederlandic (Modern Dutch) (Nederlands – short name for Nederlands Duutsch – Lowland Dutch or Lowland German/Germanic in a broad sense, hence the name
Dutch for the language in
English)
Hollandic (Hollands) (in historical
Holland,
Holland Province) (name originated from the
Old Dutch placename "Holt Lant" - "Wood Land", modern closer version of the placename is "Houtland")[54]
Cape Dutch / Cape Hollandic (Kaaps-Hollands) (was spoken in today's western part of the
Western Cape Province, originally in
Cape Town and environs,
Cape of Good Hope area) (not identical and not to be confused with
Kaaps) (initially it was spoken by the
Boers and
Cape Dutch) (it was the variant of Afrikaans spoken by people of European ancestry) (extinct)
Afrikaans (Afrikaans-Nederlands / Afrikaans-Hollands / Afrikaans-Hollands Duutsch – African Dutch / African Nederlandic / Common Afrikaans) - spoken by the
Afrikaners (in the beginning known as
Boers and
Cape Dutch), including the
Boers and
Trekboers as subgroups, as first language; also spoken by the
Cape Coloureds (in the beginning known as Afrikaner), by the
Oorlam,
Griqua,
Basters (or Rehobothers) and
Cape Malay peoples. (a group of dialects or of two or more closely related but distinct languages mainly descendant from
HollandicDutch that was spoken in the
Dutch Cape Colony, the formation of Afrikaans started in the 17th and 18th centuries and developed over the next centuries) (it is the language of the majority in the west half of
South Africa) (see
languages of South Africa)
Contact varieties (with substrates from other languages)
Kaaps / Afrikaaps / Kaapse Afrikaans (initially spoken by the slave population, with a diverse background from several peoples, in and around
Cape Town, today it is mainly spoken by the
Cape Coloureds and
Cape Malays as first language[55] (according to several linguists, it is divergent enough from
Afrikaans to be considered a distinct language descendant from Afrikaans),[57][58] however, other linguists consider it to be a dialect or variety of Afrikaans)[55][59]
Middle Pommeranian (Mittelpommersch) (dialect formed by the expansion of
Brandenburgisch into an older Pomeranian land) (
Pomeranian substrate) (included Stettin, today's
Szczecin in Poland)
North Brandenburgisch (North Margravian) / North Marchian
Central Brandenburgisch / Middle Brandenburgisch (Central Margravian) (also called South Brandenburgish or South Marchian )
Old English diaspora (spoken by a possible Anglo-Saxon diaspora) (?)
Crimean Gothic (?) (possibly an
East Germanic language, however it does not descend from the language of
Ulfilas'
Gothic Bible) (alternatively considered to be
West Germanic)[50] (spoken by the
Crimean Goths, an
East germanic people descendant from the
Goths that stayed in Eastern Europe or, alternatively, a people descendant from
Anglo-Saxon refugees of the 11th century that migrated to southern
Crimea - the Medieval "
New England")[60] (at the end of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, "Goth" was used as synonymous for Germanic people)
Transitional Danish-Swedish (also called
South Swedish) (under pressure from
Swedification and
Standard Swedish) (
Danish substrate) (divergent enough to be considered a separate language from Swedish and Danish although closely related and sharing features with both languages) (in
Scania,
Blekinge, South
Halland and South
Småland)
Latgalian (Upper Latgalian) (Upper Latvian) (Latgalīšu) (Augšzemnieku dialekts) (divergent enough to be considered a separate language from Latvian but closely related to it) (initially Latvian developed from the language of the
Latgalians)
Rusyn / Carpathian Rusyn (also known as Ruthenian, Rusinian) (Pусиньскый язык / Pуски язи – Rusîn'skyj Jazyk / Ruski Jazik / Pуснацькый язык – Rusnac'kyj jazyk / Πо-Hашому – Po Nashomu) (spoken by the
Rusyns mainly in
Carpathian Ruthenia, most in
Transcarpathia, far southeastern Poland and far northeastern Slovakia and also in enclaves in
Bačka,
Vojvodina, northern Serbia;
Slavonia, eastern Croatia; the
Banat, southwestern Romania; and northern
Bosnia) (divergent enough to be considered its own language, not a simple
Ukrainian dialect, although it has some
mutual intelligibility with Ukrainian)
Hutsulian / Gutsulian (dialect spoken by the
Hutsuls or
Gutsuls)
Slobozhan / Slodozian / Slododzian (in
Slobozhan or
Sloboda Ukraine region) (in most regions it overlapps with Orlovskiy Russian dialect in a complex language situation)
Russian (Pусский язык – Russkij / Russkiy Yazyk) (an older name was великорусский - Velikorusskiy -
Great Russian or Great Russian language) (distinction between russian dialects of primary formation and russian dialects of second formation is mainly chronological and geographical not genealogical) (dialects of primary formation correspond to Old Russia, mainly settled before 16th century, the Russian Core dialects in the central area of
European Russia) (dialects of secondary formation correspond to the new territories where
Russians expanded, mainly and especially after the
Russian expansion and conquests from the 16th century until 19th centuries and the formation of a
Russian diaspora outside Russia proper)
Central Russian / Middle Russian (Transitional Northern-Southern Russian, has characteristics with both southern and northern dialects) (this dialectal area forms a big arc strip or bow-shaped strip, from northwest towards southeast, between southern and northern dialects, including both dialects of primary and second formation, from
Saint Petersburg, passing by
Veliky Novgorod,
Tver,
Moscow,
Penza,
Saratov and
Volgograd, to
Astrakhan)
West Central Russian / West Middle Russian (Novgorodskiy – Novgorodian) (Old Novgorodian substrate)
Pskov dialectal group (Pskovskiy – Pskovian) (in
Pskov,
Velikiye Luki,
Toropets) (some features, but less, are transitional to Smolensk dialect and
Belarusian)
Siberian Russian dialects (a group of dialects in a very big landmass language area, in
Siberia, in the broadsense also including the
Russian Far East) (the dialects of the
Siberian Russians and other
Starozhily Russians were formed mainly on the basis of
Northern Russian dialects[61] although there was also contribution from the dialects of Russian settlers speaking dialects of
Middle and
Southern groups)
Russian diaspora dialects (spoken by ethnic
Russiansoutside Russia, they have several dialectal group afilliations, a geographical grouping of dialects)
Southern Borderlands dialect (Southern Kresy) / Podolian-Volhynian Polish (has affinities with
Lesser Polish) (spoken in isolated pockets or enclaves in Ukraine in the southern
Kresy, the Borderland regions) (Eastern Polish dialect in the former East Poland territories lost to the
Soviet Union in 1945)
Lwów dialect (gwara Lwowska) (in today's
Lviv, western Ukraine)
Goralian (Highlander Polish dialects) (has several affinities with
Lesser Polish dialect but it's not a simple subdialect of it)
Wilno dialect (gwara Wileńska) (in
Vilnius city and region,
Lithuania's capital, southeastern Lithuania, and overlapping with
Lithuanian)
New Mixed Dialects (in what is called
Recovered Territories of western and far northern Poland, former ethnic and linguistic German majority territories of
Silesia,
Pomerania,
East Brandenburg and most of
East Prussia annexed in 1945 to Poland; several speakers of eastern Polish dialects settled in these regions and mixed with other polish dialect speakers)
Northern New Mixed Dialects
Northwestern new Mixed Dialects
Southern New Mixed Dialects
Masurian / Mazurian (Mazurská gádkä) (divergent enough to be considered a separate language from
Polish[citation needed] although closely related to it)
Western Central Moravian (Západní středomoravská okrajová podskupina)
Eastern Central Moravian (Východní středomoravská podskupina)
New Mixed dialects / Peripheral Czech dialects (in former ethnic and linguistic German majority territories of the
Sudeten Germans,
Sudetenland, that where annexed to
Czechoslovakia in 1945, border region of what is today the Czech Republic with Germany, Austria and Poland)
Transitional Slovene-Serbo-Croatian / Transitional Slovene-Kajkavian-Chakavian-Shtokavian (dialects do not follow a border defined by ethnic groups, people from the same ethnic group could speak different dialects with different dialect group affiliation)
Kajkavian (Kajkavica / Kajkavština) (divergent enough from
Standard Croatian, which is Shtokavian based, to be considered its own language)
Northwestern Kajkavian (Closed Ekavian) (several similarities with Slovene)
Southwestern Kajkavian (Closed Ekavian, transitional to
Shtokavian)
Zagreb dialect (the traditional
Kajkavian and Standard
Shtokavian based Croatian overlap and coexist,
Standard Croatian is not based on its capital dialect)
Eastern Kajkavian (Closed Ekavian, transitional to Shtokavian)
Prigorje (Closed Ekavian, Kajkavised Chakavian and Shtokavian speakers)
Gorski Kotar (Ikavian, transitional to Slovenian as well)
Kajkavian diaspora dialects
Kajkavian Burgenland Croatian (Gradišćanskohrvatski jezik) ("Burgenland Croatian" is an umbrella word for different dialects with different group affiliation) (spoken in
Burgenland state, far eastern Austria, west of Hungary, between Slovenia to the south and Slovakia to the north, it does not border Croatia directly) (spoken by the
Burgenland Croats, which originally came from the river
Una valley)
Kajkavian Croatian Neusiedl dialect (some Croats speak a Kajkavian dialect near
Lake Neusiedl)
Grob dialect (a Kajkavian dialect, spoken in
Chorvátsky Grob in Slovakia)
Chakavian (Čakavica / Čakavština) (divergent enough from Standard Croatian, which is Shtokavian based, to be considered its language)
Chakavian Burgenland Croatian Gradišćanskohrvatski jezik ("Burgenland Croatian" is an umbrella word for different dialects with different group affiliation) (spoken in
Burgenland state, far eastern Austria, west of Hungary, between Slovenia to the south and Slovakia to the north, it does not border
Croatia directly) (spoken by the
Burgenland Croats, which originally came from the river
Una valley)
Dolinci dialect (dialect of the Dolinci in Unterpullendorf,
Frankenau, Kleinmutschen, etc. is a (middle) Chakavian dialect)
Poljan dialect (dialect of the Poljanci near Lake
Neusiedl, is a (middle) Chakavian dialect)
Hac dialect (Chakavian dialect of Haci near
Neusiedl)
Shtokavian–(south)Chakavian Burgenland Croatian (Gradišćanskohrvatski jezik) ("Burgenland Croatian" is an umbrella word for different dialects with different group affiliation) (spoken in
Burgenland state,
Gradišće in Croatian, far eastern Austria, west of Hungary, between Slovenia to the south and Slovakia to the north, it does not border Croatia directly) (spoken by the
Burgenland Croats, which originally came from the river
Una valley)
Štoj dialect (dialect of the Croatian group Štoji –
Güttenbach,
Stinatz,
Neuberg, is a Shtokavian–(south)Chakavian mixed dialect)
Shtokavian (Štokavski) (basis of
Serbo-Croatian but not identical) (dialects do not follow a border defined by ethnic groups, people from the same ethnic group could speak different dialects with different dialect group affiliation)
Western Herzegovinian-Bosnian (Schakavian, Ikavian) (originated roughly in Western
Herzegovina, has spread over a large area out of its initial home region) (spoken by many
Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina)
Narrow Western Herzegovinian / Western Herzegovinian Proper (includes west part of
Mostar)
Schakavian Burgenland Croatian (Gradišćanskohrvatski jezik) ("Burgenland Croatian" is an umbrella word for different dialects with different group affiliation) (spoken in
Burgenland state,
Gradišće in Croatian, far eastern Austria, west of Hungary, between Slovenia to the south and Slovakia to the north, it does not border Croatia directly) (spoken by the
Burgenland Croats, which originally came from the river
Una valley)
Vlah dialect (dialect of the Vlahi, is a Shtokavian dialect in
Weiden bei Rechnitz, Zuberbach, Althodis,
Schandorf, Dürnbach, Allersdorf, etc., is Shtokavian (schacavian) ikavian dialect similar to Slavonian)
Dalmatian / Shtokavian Dalmatian (Shtakavian, Ikavian) (Croatian Dalmatian) (not to be confused with the extinct Romance
Dalmatian language)
Bunjevac (Shtakavian, Ikavian) (in far northwestern
Vojvodina) (an enclave of New Western Shtokavian)
New Southern Shtokavian
Southeastern
Eastern Herzegovinian (Istočnohercegovački /
источнохерцеговачки) (in a broad sense) (Ijekavian) (it is the most widespread subdialect of the
Shtokavian dialect of
Serbo-Croatian, both by territory and the number of speakers) (it is the dialectal basis for all modern literary Serbo-Croatian standards: Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian, and Montenegrin, the latter only partially codified) (originated roughly in Eastern
Herzegovina, has spread over a large area out of its initial home region)
Narrow Eastern Herzegovian / Eastern Herzegovian Proper (original area of Eastern Herzegovian in Western
Montenegro and Eastern
Herzegovina, Southeastern region of
Bosnia and Herzegovina)
Janjevo-Letnica (traditionally in the southeastern part of
Kosovo) (spoken by the
Kosovo Croats that form Slavic language enclaves in Kosovo the same way as
Kosovo Serbians)
Janjevo dialect (was spoken in
Janjevo by the
Janjevci, Kosovo Croats, a
Croatian subgroup that speaks a Torlakian dialect)
Letnica dialect (spoken in several settlements historically inhabited by the
Letničani, Kosovo Croats; they were
Laramans, that is,
crypto-Christians, specifically crypto-Catholics in their case, in the municipality of
Viti, Kosovo; a
Croatian subgroup that speaks a Torlakian dialect)
Bulgarian (Slavic Bulgarian / Seven Tribes Slavic) (български – Bălgarski / языкъ словяньскъ – Jazykŭ Slovyanĭskŭ) (old east south Slavic people, the
Seven Slavic tribes and other Slavic tribes, who called their own language simply as "Slavic", later adopted the adjective "Bulgarian" for the language based on the name of most of their
ruling elite – the
Bulgars, which were of
Turkic non-
Indo-European origin and founded the
Bulgarian Empire)
Macedonian (Slavic Macedonian / Vardar Slavic) (македонски / македонски Jазик – Makedonski / Makedonski Jazik) (often included in the Western Bulgarian dialects of the
Eastern South Slavicdialect continuum) (old east south Slavic people, composed of several Slavic tribes, who called their own language simply as "Slavic", later adopted the adjective "Macedonian" for the language based on the name of the former
East Roman Empire Province called
Macedonia that had this name by reference of the ancient Hellenic people – the
Macedonians, although most of the territory of Modern
North Macedonia was
Paeonia) (not to be confused with the Macedonian Greek dialect spoken by the
Macedonian Greeks)
Paulician dialect (in the region of
Rakovski in southern Bulgaria and
Svishtov in northern Bulgaria) (speakers of this dialect are mainly Catholic Christian Bulgarians)
Jassic (extinct) (
Ossetic variant, more closely related to
Digor, of a nomadic tribe, the
Jassic people, settled in
Hungary at the 13th century, in
Jaszsag) (not to be confused with the language of the
Iazyges, a related but separate language)
Khwarazmian / Chorasmian[67] (زڨاکای خوارزم, zβ'k 'y xw'rzm) (extinct) (was spoken in
Khwarazm – Xwârazm or Xârazm, Xvairizem, Huwarazmish, from Kh(w)ar "Low" and Zam "Land") (closely related to
Sogdian)
Avestan (namesake for the old Iranian language in which
Zoroastrian religion sacred book, the
Avesta, is written, sometimes the language was incorrectly known by the name
Zend, which is the
exegesis of the
Avesta, also an umbrella word for two different languages called Old Avestan and Young Avestan) (language selfname or native name is presently unknown) (
Classical and
sacred language of
ancient Iran) (
archaicIranian language that was originally spoken in ancient
Margiana,
Aria,
Bactria and
Arachosia, roughly corresponding with a large part of today's
Afghanistan, especially the northwest and north, and also eastern
Turkmenistan and western
Tajikistan) (extinct)
Old Avestan / "Gathic Avestan" (the language of the
Gathas, the oldest part of the
Avesta, composed by
Zarathustra/
Zoroaster) (not a direct ancestor of Young Avestan which evolved from a different dialect of a common language) (spoken in the 2nd millennium BCE)[68] (extinct)
Young Avestan / Younger Avestan (not a direct descendant from Old Avestan, it evolved from a different dialect of a common language) (extinct) (spoken in the 1st millennium CE)[69] (may have been identical with the ancestor of Margian and Aryan of Aria languages)[70] (extinct)
Aryan of Aria (was spoken in
Aria, roughly corresponding with today's northwest Afghanistan, including
Herat Province) (extinct)
Bactrian (Αριαο – Aryao = Aryā; αο = ao = ā) (extinct) (was spoken in
Bactria – βαχλο – Bakhlo) (related to
Avestan but not identical or descendant from it)[71]
Wakhi (وخی – x̌ik zik) (it is spoken mainly in the
Wakhan Corridor) (classified as
Pamir languages because of geographical position not genealogical)[74] (seem to have
Saka influence)
Northern Pashto (
Pakhto) (Northern variety) (
Northern-Central Pakhto) (Yusufzai) ( یوسفزئی پښتو – Pax̌tō) (divergent enough to be considered a separate language with its own dialects, although closely related to the other
Pakhto or
Pashto languages)
Central Pashto (
GhiljiPakhto) (or Northwestern dialect) (منځنۍ پښتو – Manźanəi Pax̌to) (divergent enough to be considered a separate language with its own dialects, although closely related to the other
Pakhto or
Pashto languages) (Basis of Standard
Pakhto/
Pashto but not identical)
Wanetsi (Tarīnō / Chalgarī) (وڼېڅي – Waṇētsī; ترينو – Tarīnō; څلګري – Tsalgarī) (an archaic and divergent Pakhto/Pashto variety) (divergent enough to be considered a separate language with its own dialects, although closely related to the other
Pakhto or
Pashto languages)
Gedrosian (was spoken in
Gedrosia / Gwadar / Maka?, roughly corresponding with today's
Makran,
Balochistan) (extinct)
Southern dialects (South and East of
Dushanbe,
Kulob /
Kulyab, and the
Rasht region of
Tajikistan) (today tends to be the basis of Standard Tajiki but not identical)
Transitional Iranian-Indo-Aryan[75][76] (older name:
Kafiri) (according to some scholars[77][78] there is the possibility that the older name "
Kapisi" that was synonymal of
Kambojas, related to the ancient
Kingdom of Kapisa, in modern-day
Kapisa Province, changed to "Kafiri" and came to be confused and assimilated with "kafiri", meaning "infidel" in Arabic and used in Islam)
Domaaki / Dumaki (in Nager and
Hunza, among the
Burushaski,
Wakhi and
Shina speakers) (historically it was a language of the North Indian plains, affiliated to the Central Group of New
Indo-Aryan languages whose speakers migrated towards north) (
Central Indo-Aryan substrate that is a distant relative of the languages spoken by the
Doma/
Roma)
Jakati / Jataki (extinct) (it was spoken by several small, supposedly
Roma ethnic groups,
Jāt, in
Afghanistan)
Transitional Punjabi-Sindhi
Khetrani /
Jafri (Khetrānī) (it is spoken by the majority of the
Khetrans, an
Indo-Aryan origin people assimilated by the
Baloch and considered a
Baloch tribe) (earlier suggestion that Khetrani might be a remnant of a
Dardic language)
Nepali / Khas Kura / Parbatiya / Gorkhali (नेपाली / खस कुरा – Nepali / Khas Kurā) (origin in
Gorkha Kingdom, today's western
Nepal) (spoken by the
Khas /
Khas Arya people of
Nepal)
Domari ("India and Middle Eastern Gypsy") (دٛومَرِي – דּוֺמָרִי – Dōmʋārī / Dōmʋārī ǧib / Dômarî ĵib) (in scattered communities in
India,
Central Asia, the
Middle East and
North Africa)
Dombari (in Northern India and Pakistan)
Dehari (in Haryana)
Orhi (in Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand)
Kanjari (in Northern India)
Patharkati (in Northern India and Nepal)
Mirasi (in Northern India, Punjab)
Bedi (in Bangladesh)
Narikurava (in Tamil Nadu)
Lori (in Balochistan)
Mugati (Lyuli) (in Central Asian countries)
Churi-Wali (in Afghanistan)
Kurbati / Ghorbati (in Afghanistan and Iran)
Karachi / Garachi (in Northern Iran and Azerbaijan, Caucasus)
Marashi (in Marash, southeastern Turkey)
Barake (in Syria)
Nawari (in Mesopotamia, Levant, North Africa)
Palestinian Domari (in the old quarters of Jerusalem)
Helebi (in North Africa: Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco)
Halab / Ghajar (in Sudan)
Old Persian Domari (former speakers shifted to a mixed
Persian Romani language) (extinct)
Old Caló (former speakers shifted to a mixed Romani-Occitan-Ibero Romance language, Modern
Caló, and to a mixed Romani-Basque language,
Erromintxela) (extinct)
Mumbai Hindi (Mumbaiya Hindi) (Bombay Hindi) ("Bombay Baat")
Urdu / Lashkari (Persianised standard register of the Hindustani language) (اُردُو – Urdū)
Modern Standard Urdu (prestige dialect of the language spoken in Northern South Asia, especially in cities; contains more Persian and Arabic vocabulary than Dakhni but less than Rekhta;
lingua franca of
Pakistan)
Dakhini / Dakkhani / Deccani (دکنی – Dakkhani) (fewer Persian and Arabic loans than other Urdu dialects) (an Urdu dialect or a derived language from it) (spoken by the
Dakhini Muslims in Central and Southern India)
Hajong (হৃজং ভাশা – Hajong Bhasa) (
New Hajong) (Old Hajong was a
Tibeto-Burman language, New Hajong is an Indo-Aryan language with Tibeto-Burman roots and substrate)
Bodo Parja / Jharia (tribal dialect of Odia spoken mostly in Koraput district of Southern Odisha)
Desiya Odia or Koraputia Odia (spoken in Koraput, Kalahandi, Rayagada, Nabarangapur and Malkangiri Districts of
Odisha and in the hilly regions of Vishakhapatnam, Vizianagaram District of
Andhra Pradesh)
Sambalpuri / Western Odia (Kosali) (spoken in western
Odisha, East
India, in Bargarh, Bolangir, Boudh, Debagarh, Nuapada, Sambalpur, Subarnapur districts of Odisha and in Raigarh, Mahasamund, Raipur districts of Chhattisgarh state) (it is not to be confused with "Kosali", a term sometimes also used for
Awadhi and related languages)
Reli / Relli (spoken in Southern Odisha and bordering areas of Andhra Pradesh)
Kupia (spoken by the
Valmiki caste people in the Indian state of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, mostly in Hyderabad, Mahabubnagar, Srikakulam, Vizianagaram, East Godavari and Visakhapatnam districts)
Majhi (extinct in India but still spoken in Nepal by the
Majhi people)
Tharu (थारु – Tharu) (not only one language) (pre-Indo-European, pre-Dravidian and pre-Sino-Tibetan substrate of an unknown language or languages of a possible indigenous language family) (mainly in the
Terai regions of
Nepal by
Tharu people)
Phrygian (may have been more closely related to Greek, also a possible ancestor of Armenian, East
Phrygians or
Mysians (Eastern
Mushki) may have spoken a language that was
Proto-Armenian, ancestor of
Armenian)
Mysian? – possibly related to
Moesian, an Anatolian/Asia Minor branch of Moesian, and to
Dacian, related to
Phrygian with an
Anatolian substrate closer to
Lydian) (also may have been an
Anatolian Indo-European language).
Mysians may have been the same as the
Mushki (western and eastern branches) and their language also, if that was the case, then their language may have been related to or an ancestor of
Proto-Armenian (Eastern
Mushki may have been identical with
Proto-Armenian).
Paionian (possibly related to Phrygian, Thracian, Illyrian, or Anatolian)
Belgic/
Ancient Belgian (part of Celtic, related to Celtic, Italic, or part of the
Nordwestblock) (possibly part of an older Pre-Celtic Indo-European branch)
Cimmerian (possibly related to Iranian or Thracian)
Dardanian (Illyrian, Dacian, mixed Thracian-Illyrian or a transitional Thracian-Illyrian language)
East Central Asia Indo-European (is a Geographical grouping, not necessarily genealogical) (they may have been
Iranian or
Tocharian languages)
Asinean /
Ossinean-
Wusunean (may have been two different variant names for the same language and people)
Assinean / Ossinean (Ancient language of the steppe, spoken by the
Asii) (Assinean or Ossinean and Wusunean may have been two different variant names for the same language and people)
Gushiean-Yuezhiean (may have been two different variant names for the same language and people which for some time dwelt in several regions of modern eastern
Xinjiang and western
Gansu)
Nearer Gushiean / Anterior Gushiean, in the
Turpan Basin southern area
Further Gushiean / Posterior Gushiean, in the
Turpan Basin northern area
Yuezhiean (it was spoken by the
Yuezhi, an ancient Indo-European speaking people, in the western areas of the modern Chinese province of
Gansu, during the 1st millennium BC, or in
Dunhong, in the
Tian Shan, later they migrated westward and southward into south
Central Asia, in contact and conflict with the
Sogdians and
Bactrians, and they possibly were the people called by the name "Tocharians", which was possibly a
Tocharian or an
Iranian speaking people)
Greater-Yuezhiean (Dà Yuèzhī – 大月氏) (dialect ancestral to the hypothetical Kushanite language spoken in
Kushana). Possibly this language was spoken by an
Iranian or
Tocharian people (possibly they were the ancestors of the
Kushans)
Lusitanian (part of Celtic, related to Celtic, Ligurian, Italic,
Nordwestblock, or his own branch) (possibly part of an older Pre-Celtic Indo-European branch)
Hunnic-Xiongnu language or languages (possibly the same or part of the same)
Hunnic (possibly part, related or descend from the older language of the Xiongnu) – there is a hypothesis that endorses the possibly that Hunnic belonged to the Scythian branch of Iranic language group (other hypotheses uphold Hunnic was a
Turkic or
Yenisean language) (
Huns were a tribal confederation of different peoples and tribes, not necessarily of the same origin, because of that, even if not the most, there may have been an Indo-European linguistic element)
Xiongnu (Huns may have been related, part of them or descend from them) – spoken by the
Xiongnu tribes in Central
Mongolia and northeast China (other hypotheses uphold Xiongnu language was a Turkic or Yenisean language) (
Xiongnu were a tribal confederation of different peoples and tribes, not necessarily of the same origin, because of that, even if not the most, there may have been an Indo-European linguistic element)
Euphratic – a hypothetical ancient Indo-European language spoken in the
Euphrates river course that may have been the substrate language of later Semitic languages.
Ordos culture language – located in modern
Inner Mongolia autonomous region, China.This culture may reflect the easternmost extension of an Indo-European ethnolinguistic group, possibly
Iranian under the form of Sakans or
Scythians, or
Tocharian (One other possibility is that they were the
Xiongnu people).
Qiang language (of the ancient
Qiang people) – spoken by the historical
Qiang people in parts of the northeastern and eastern
Tibetan Plateau, modern China.
^
abAnthony, David W. (2007), The Horse, the Wheel and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World, Princeton University Press
^
abRinge, Don; Warnow, Tandy.; Taylor, Ann. (2002). 'Indo-European and Computational Cladistics', Transactions of the Philological Society, n.º 100/1, 59-129.
^Working hypothesis 1: PIE 1 and Anatolian The
homeland of PIE 1—ancestral to all Indo-European, including the Anatolian branch — was more probably south of, or possibly in, the
Caucasus than on the
Pontic–Caspian steppe. The speakers of PIE 1 were probably not closely associated genetically with the ‘Steppe component’, that is, ~50
EHG and ~50%
CHG. In its unrevised form, the
steppe hypothesis is that the parent language of all Indo-European, including the Anatolian branch, what is called here PIE 1, came from the Pontic–Caspian steppe. Thus far, the
archaeogenetic evidence—including that published in the two seminal papers of 2015 — has supported the Pontic–Caspian steppe as the homeland of PIE 2 (ProtoIndo-European after Anatolian branched off) rather than PIE 1. Therefore, on this basic matter, the new evidence has not confirmed the steppe hypothesis. in KOCH, John T. "Formation of the Indo-European branches in the light of the Archaeogenetic Revolution" draft of paper read at the conference 'Genes, Isotopes and Artefacts. How should we interpret the movement of people throughout Bronze Age Europe?' Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, 13-14 December 2018.
^It is possible that there were other IE branches that died out completely unattested. in KOCH, John T. "Formation of the Indo-European branches in the light of the Archaeogenetic Revolution" draft of paper read at the conference 'Genes, Isotopes and Artefacts. How should we interpret the movement of people throughout Bronze Age Europe?' Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, 13-14 December 2018.
^Working hypothesis 2: PIE 2, Afanasievo, and Tocharian The homeland of PIE 2—following the branching off of
Anatolian, but before the branching off of
Tocharian — was the
Pontic–Caspian steppe. There was a general close association between speakers of PIE 2 and users of the
Yamnaya material culture and a genetic population with the Steppe component (~50%
EHG : ~50%
CHG). in KOCH, John T. "Formation of the Indo-European branches in the light of the Archaeogenetic Revolution" draft of paper read at the conference 'Genes, Isotopes and Artefacts. How should we interpret the movement of people throughout Bronze Age Europe?' Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, 13-14 December 2018.
^Working hypothesis 3: The
Beaker expansion and the genetic and linguistic heterogeneity of the Beaker People The earliest Beaker package arose amongst speakers of a non-Indo-European language by the
Tagus estuary in present-day central
Portugal ~2800 BC. Beaker material was adopted by speakers of Indo-European as it spread east and north from its place of origin. in KOCH, John T. "Formation of the Indo-European branches in the light of the Archaeogenetic Revolution" draft of paper read at the conference 'Genes, Isotopes and Artefacts. How should we interpret the movement of people throughout Bronze Age Europe?' Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, 13-14 December 2018.
^Kruta, Venceslas (1991). The Celts. Thames & Hudson
^Ivšić, Dubravka. "Italo-Celtic Correspondences in Verb Formation". In: Studia Celto-Slavica 3 (2010): 47–59. DOI:
doi:
10.54586/IPBD8569
^Working hypothesis 6: Non-IE influence in the West and the separation of
Celtic from
ItaloCeltic
1. The
Beaker phenomenon spread when a non-Indo-European culture and identity from
Atlantic Europe was adopted by speakers of Indo-European with
Steppe ancestry ~2550 BC.
2. Interaction between these two languages turned the Indo-European of
Atlantic Europe into
Celtic.
3. That this interaction probably occurred in South-west Europe is consistent with the historical location of the
Aquitanian,
Basque, and
Iberian languages and also aDNA from
Iberia indicating the mixing of a powerful, mostly male instrusive group with
Steppe ancestry and indigenous Iberians beginning ~2450 BC, resulting in total replacement of indigenous paternal ancestry with R1b-M269 by ~1900 BC.
4. The older language(s) survived in regions that were not integrated into the
Atlantic Bronze Age network.¶NOTE. This hypothesis should not be construed as a narrowly ‘Out of Iberia’ theory of Celtic. Aquitanian was north of Pyrenees. Iberian in ancient times and Basque from its earliest attestation until today are found on both sides of the Pyrenees. The contact area envisioned is
Atlantic Europe in general and west of the
CWC zone bounded approximately by the
Rhine. in KOCH, John T. "Formation of the Indo-European branches in the light of the Archaeogenetic Revolution" draft of paper read at the conference 'Genes, Isotopes and Artefacts. How should we interpret the movement of people throughout Bronze Age Europe?' Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, 13-14 December 2018.
^Tamburelli, Marco; Brasca, Lissander (2018-06-01). "Revisiting the classification of Gallo-Italic: a dialectometric approach". Digital Scholarship in the Humanities. 33 (2): 442–455.
doi:
10.1093/llc/fqx041.
ISSN2055-7671
^Prósper, Blanca Maria; Villar, Francisco (2009). "NUEVA INSCRIPCIÓN LUSITANA PROCEDENTE DE PORTALEGRE". EMERITA, Revista de Lingüística y Filología Clásica (EM). LXXVII (1): 1–32. Retrieved 11 June 2012.
^Villar, Francisco (2000). Indoeuropeos y no indoeuropeos en la Hispania Prerromana [Indo-Europeans and non-Indo-Europeans in Pre-Roman Hispania] (in Spanish) (1st ed.). Salamanca: Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca.
ISBN84-7800-968-X. Retrieved 22 September 2014 – via
Google Books.
^Brixhe, Claude (2002). "Interactions between Greek and Phrygian under the Roman Empire". In Adams, J. N.; Janse, M.; Swaine, S. (eds.). Bilingualism in Ancient Society: Language Contact and the Written Text. Oxford University Press.
ISBN978-0-19-924506-2.
^cite journal|Hrach Martirosyan “Origins and historical development of the Armenian language” in Journal of Language Relationship, International Scientific Periodical, n.º10 (2013). Russian State University for the Humanities, Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
^Martirosyan, Hrach (2014). "Origins and Historical Development of the Armenian Language" (PDF). Leiden University: 1–23. Retrieved 5 August 2019.
^I. M. Diakonoff The Problem of the Mushki Archived August 25, 2011, at the
Wayback Machine in The Prehistory of the Armenian People.
^Working hypothesis 4: PIE 6,
Corded Ware cultures, Germanic/Balto-Slavic/Indo-Iranian, and Alteuropäisch ~2800–2550 BC the region of Corded Ware cultures (CWC) in northern Europe—bounded approximately by the
Rhine in the west and the
Volga in the east—was the territory of an Indo-European
dialect continuum ancestral to the
Indo-Iranian,
Balto-Slavic, and
Germanic branches. in KOCH, John T. "Formation of the Indo-European branches in the light of the Archaeogenetic Revolution" draft of paper read at the conference 'Genes, Isotopes and Artefacts. How should we interpret the movement of people throughout Bronze Age Europe?' Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, 13-14 December 2018.
^The separation of the Pre-
Germanic dialect from the Pre-
Balto-Slavic/
Indo-Iranian, and its reorientation towards Pre-
Italo-Celtic, was the result of
Beaker influence in the western CWC area that began ~2550 BC. in KOCH, John T. "Formation of the Indo-European branches in the light of the Archaeogenetic Revolution" draft of paper read at the conference 'Genes, Isotopes and Artefacts. How should we interpret the movement of people throughout Bronze Age Europe?' Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, 13-14 December 2018.
^One important finding of ringe et al. 2002 (a version of whose tree model is Fig. 2 here) is the difficulty encountered in seeking the place of Germanic within the first-order subgroupings of Indo-European. They offer the following plausible explanation, which takes on new meaning in light of archaeogenetic evidence. "This split distribution of character states leads naturally to the hypothesis that
Germanic was originally a near sister of
Balto-Slavic and
Indo-Iranian (possibly before the satem sound changes spread through that
dialect continuum, if that was what happened); that at that very early date it lost contact with its more easterly sisters and came into closer contact with the languages to the west; and that contact episode led to extensive vocabulary borrowing at the period before the occurrence in any of the languages of any distintive sound changes that would have rendered the borrowing detectable. (p. 111)." in Ringe, Don; Warnow, Tandy.; Taylor, Ann. (2002). 'Indo-European and Computational Cladistics', Transactions of the Philological Society, n.º 100/1, 59-129. quoted in KOCH, John T. "Formation of the Indo-European branches in the light of the Archaeogenetic Revolution" draft of paper read at the conference 'Genes, Isotopes and Artefacts. How should we interpret the movement of people throughout Bronze Age Europe?' Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, 13-14 December 2018.
^Mallory, J. P. (1997). "Thracian language". In Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Taylor & Francis. p. 576.
^Working hypothesis 5: Eastern
CWC,
Sintashta,
Andronovo, and the attested
Indo-Iranian languages After
Pre-Germanic reoriented towards
Italo-Celtic, in the context of the
Beaker phenomenon in
Central Europe ~2550–2200 BC, the satəm and RUKI linguistic innovations spread through the remainder of the
Balto-Slavic/
Indo-Iraniancontinuum. The dialect(s) at the eastern end of CWC developed towards Indo-Iranian. The
Abashevo culture between the
Don and southern
Urals (~2500–1900 BC) is a likely candidate for the Pre-Indo-Iranian homeland. The
Sintashta culture, east of the southern Urals ~2100–1800 BC, can be identified as a key centre from which an early stage of
Indo-Iranian spread via the
Andronovo horizon of
central Asia ~2000–1200 BC to
South and
South-west Asia by 1500 BC. That Indo-Iranian came as a reflux from north-eastern Europe (rather than a direct migration from Yamnaya on the Pontic–Caspian steppe) is shown by the European Middle Neolithic (EMN) ancestry present in Sintashta individuals and carried forward to Andronovo and South Asian populations. in KOCH, John T. "Formation of the Indo-European branches in the light of the Archaeogenetic Revolution" draft of paper read at the conference 'Genes, Isotopes and Artefacts. How should we interpret the movement of people throughout Bronze Age Europe?' Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, 13-14 December 2018.
^Krause, Todd B.; Slocum, Jonathan. "Tocharian Online: Series Introduction". University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
^Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009), Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Asia from the Bronze Age to the Present, Princeton University Press,
ISBN978-0-691-15034-5.
^Voynikov, Zhivko. (?). Some ancient Chinese names in East Turkestan and Central Asia and the Tocharian question.
^
abcdeMenéndez Pidal, Ramón. (2005). Historia de la Lengua Española (2 Vols.). Madrid: Fundación Ramón Menendez Pidal.
ISBN84-89934-11-8
^
abWright, Roger. (1982). Late Latin and Early Romance in Spain and Carolingian France. Liverpool: University of Liverpool (Francis Cairns, Robin Seager).
ISBN0-905205-12-X
^
abcDIAS, Felisberto Luís Ferreira. (1998). "Origens do Português Micaelense. Abordagem diacrónica do sistema vocálico" in A Voz Popular. Ponta Delgada: Universidade dos Açores
^BARCELOS, João Maria Soares de. (2008) Dicionário de falares dos Açores, vocabulário regional de todas as ilhas.
^MIKOŁAJCZAK, Sylwia. (2014). "Características fonéticas do Português da Ilha Terceira" in Studia Iberystyczne.
^Roger D. Woodard (2008), "Greek dialects", in: The Ancient Languages of Europe, ed. R. D. Woodard, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 51.
^Dawkins, R.M. 1916. Modern Greek in Asia Minor. A study of dialect of Silly, Cappadocia and Pharasa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
^"Ancient Macedonian". MultiTree: A Digital Library of Language Relationships. Archived from
the original on November 22, 2013. Retrieved 28 March 2016.
^
abMacDonald Stearns, Das Krimgotische. In: Heinrich Beck (ed.), Germanische Rest- und Trümmersprachen, Berlin/New York 1989, p. 175–194, here the chapter Die Dialektzugehörigkeit des Krimgotischen on p. 181–185
^Harm, Volker (2013), "Elbgermanisch", "Weser-Rhein-Germanisch" und die Grundlagen des Althochdeutschen, in Nielsen; Stiles (eds.), Unity and Diversity in West Germanic and the Emergence of English, German, Frisian and Dutch, North-Western European Language Evolution, vol. 66, pp. 79–99
^C. A. M. Noble: Modern German Dialects. Peter Lang, New York / Berne / Frankfort on the Main, p. 131
^
abInstituut voor de Nederlandse Taal:
De Geïntegreerde Taal-Bank: Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal (WNT), entry
VlamingI; cp.: Oudnederlands Woordenboek (ONW), entry flāmink: "Morfologie: afleiding, basiswoord (substantief): flāma ‘overstroomd gebied’; suffix: ink ‘vormt afstammingsnamen’"; Vroegmiddelnederlands Woordenboek (VMNW), entry
Vlaendren: "Etymologie: Dat.pl. van flandr- 'overstroomd gebied' met het suffix -dr-.". Cognate to Middle English flēm 'current of a stream':
Middle English Compendium → Middle English Dictionary (MED): flēm n.(2)
^Oxford English Dictionary, "Holland, n. 1," etymology.
^
abcdefDyers, Charlyn (2016). "The Conceptual Evolution in Linguistics: implications for the study of Kaaps". Multilingual Margins. 3 (2): 61–72 – via Research Gate.
^Hamans, Camiel (9 October 2021).
[1]. ciplnet.com. Retrieved 28 September 2022.
^Coetzee, Olivia M. (2 November 2021).
[2]. Words Without Borders. Retrieved 28 September 2022.
^Hendricks, Frank (7 November 2018). "The nature and context of Kaaps: a contemporary, past and future perspective".
[3]Multilingual Margins: A Journal of Multilingualism from the Periphery. 3 (2): 6–39.
doi:10.14426/mm.v3i2.38.
ISSN 2221-4216.
S2CID 197552885.
^Vakhtin, Nikolai; Golovko, Eugeniy; Schweitzer, Peter (2004).
^Simpson, St John (2017). "The Scythians. Discovering the Nomad-Warriors of Siberia". Current World Archaeology. 84: 16–21. "nomadic people made up of many different tribes thrived across a vast region that stretched from the borders of northern China and Mongolia, through southern Siberia and northern
Kazakhstan, as far as the northern reaches of the Black Sea. Collectively they were known by their Greek name: the Scythians. They spoke Iranian languages..."
^"The Avestan texts contain no historical allusions and can therefore not be dated exactly, but Old Avestan is a language closely akin to the oldest Indic language, used in the oldest parts of the
Rigveda, and should therefore probably be dated to about the same time. This date is also somewhat debated, though within a relatively small time span, and it seems probable that the oldest Vedic poems were composed over several centuries around the middle of the 2nd millennium B.C.E. (see, e.g., Witzel, 1995)", quoted in
https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence
^"Young Avestan is grammatically close to Old Persian, which ceased being spoken in the 5th-4th centuries B.C.E. These two languages were therefore probably spoken throughout the first half of the first millennium B.C.E. (see, e.g., Skjærvø, 2003-04, with further references)." in
https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence
^The Young Avesta contains a few geographical names, all belonging to roughly the area between Chorasmia and the Helmand, that is, the modern Central Asian republics and Afghanistan (see, e.g., Skjærvø, 1995; Witzel, 2000). We are therefore entitled to conclude that Young Avestan reflects the language spoken primarily by tribes from that area. The dialect position of the language also indicates that the language of the Avesta must have belonged to, or at least have been transmitted by, tribes from northeastern Iran (the change of proto-Iranian *-āḭā/ă- > *-ayā/ă- and *ǰīwa- > *ǰuwa- “live,” for instance, is typical of Sogdian, Khotanese, Pashto, etc. in
https://iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-vi1-earliest-evidence).
^It was long thought that Avestan represented "Old Bactrian", but this notion had "rightly fallen into discredit by the end of the 19th century", in Gershevitch, Ilya (1983), "Bactrian Literature", in Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.), Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3, Cambridge: Cambridge UP, pp. 1250–1258, ISBN 0-511-46773-7.
^Henning (1960), p. 47. Bactrian thus "occupies an intermediary position between Pashto and Yidgha-Munji on the one hand, Sogdian, Choresmian, and Parthian on the other: it is thus in its natural and rightful place in Bactria".
^Waghmar, Burzine K. (2001) 'Bactrian History and Language: An Overview.' Journal of the K. R. Cama Oriental Institute, 64. pp. 45.
^
abcdAntje Wendtland (2009), The position of the Pamir languages within East Iranian, Orientalia Suecana LVIII "The Pamir languages are a group of East Iranian languages which are linguistically quite diverse and cannot be traced back to a common ancestor. The term Pamir languages is based on their geographical position rather than on their genetic closeness. Exclusive features by which the Pamir languages can be distinguished from all other East Iranian languages cannot be found either."
^"There are three possible hypotheses, each of which has found supporters: (i) the Nuristani languages are part of the Iranian family, but separated at a very early stage from the main stream of Iranian languages; (ii) they are part of the Indo-Aryan family, but separated from Indo-Aryan in pre-Vedic times; and (iii) they are neither Indian nor Iranian but represent a third branch of the Aryan family" in Almuth Degener – Indo-Iranian Languages and Peoples (pp.103–117).
^
abSee also: Ancient Kamboja, People & the Country, 1981, p 278, These Kamboj People, 1979, pp 119–20, K. S. Dardi etc.
^
abSir Thomas H. Holdich, in his classic book, (The Gates of India, p 102-03), writes that the Aspasians (Aspasioi) represent the modern Kafirs. But the modern Kafirs, especially the Siah-Posh Kafirs (Kamoz/Camoje, Kamtoz) etc are considered to be modern representatives of the ancient Kambojas.
^Telegin, D. 2005. The Yamnaya culture and the Indo-European Homeland Problem. Journal of Indo-European Studies. 33 (3 & 4): 339–358
^Saag, Lehti; Vasilyev, Sergey V.; Varul, Liivi; Kosorukova, Natalia V. (2021).
"Genetic ancestry changes in Stone to Bronze Age transition in the East European plain". Science Advances. 7 (4): 8.
Bibcode:
2021SciA....7.6535S.
doi:10.1126/sciadv.abd6535.
PMC7817100.
PMID33523926. "The Fatyanovo Culture people were the first farmers in the area and the arrival of the culture has been associated with migration... This is supported by our results as the Stone Age HG and the Bronze Age Fatyanovo individuals are genetically clearly distinguishable... [T]he Fatyanovo Culture individuals (similarly to other CWC people) have mostly Steppe ancestry, but also some EF ancestry which was not present in the area before and thus excludes the northward migration of Yamnaya Culture people with only Steppe ancestry as the source of Fatyanovo Culture population. The strongest connections for Fatyanovo Culture in archaeological material can be seen with the Middle Dnieper Culture... These findings suggest present-day Ukraine as the possible origin of the migration leading to the formation of the Fatyanovo Culture and of the Corded Ware cultures in general... [I]t has been suggested that the Fatyanovo Culture people admixed with the local Volosovo Culture HG after their arrival in European Russia. Our results do not support this as they do not reveal more HG ancestry in the Fatyanovo people compared to other CWC groups or any visible change in ancestry proportions during the period covered by our samples."
^Beckwith 2009, p. 49: "Archaeologists are now generally agreed that the Andronovo culture of the Central Steppe region in the second millennium BC is to be equated with the Indo-Iranians."