This is the list of ancient architectural records consists of record-making architectural achievements of the
Greco-Roman world from c. 800 BC to 600 AD.
The highest bridge over the water or ground was the single-arched
Pont d'Aël which carried irrigation water for
Aosta across a deep Alpine gorge. The height of its deck over the torrent below measures 66 m.[1]
The largest bridge by span was the
Trajan's Bridge over the lower Danube. Its twenty-one timber arches spanned 50 m each from centreline to centreline.[2]
The largest pointed arch bridge by span was the
Karamagara Bridge in
Cappadocia with a clear span of 17 m. Constructed in the 5th or 6th century AD across a tributary of the Euphrates, the now submerged structure is one of the earliest known examples of pointed architecture in
late antiquity, and may even be the oldest surviving pointed arch bridge.[3]
The largest rivers to be spanned by solid bridges were the
Danube and the
Rhine, the two
largest European rivers west of the
Eurasian Steppe. The lower Danube was crossed at least at two different crossing points (
at Drobeta-Turnu Severin and
at Corabia) and the middle and lower Rhine at four (
at Mainz,
at Neuwied,
at Koblenz and
at Cologne). For rivers with strong currents and to allow swift army movements,
pontoon bridges were also routinely employed.[4] Going from the distinct lack of records of solid bridges spanning larger rivers elsewhere,[5] the Roman feat appears to be unsurpassed anywhere in the world until well into the 19th century.
The longest bridge, and one of the longest of all time, was
Constantine's Bridge with an overall length of 2,437 m, 1137 m of which crossed the Danube's riverbed.[6]Pont Serme in southern France reached a length of 1,500 m,[7] but may be better classified as an arcaded
viaduct. The second longest bridge was thus the acclaimed
Trajan's Bridge further upstream from Constantine's. Erected 104–105 AD by the engineer
Apollodorus of Damascus for facilitating the advance of Roman troops in the
Dacian Wars, it featured twenty-one spans covering a total distance of between 1,070 and 1,100 m. The longest existing Roman bridge is the sixty-two span
Puente Romano at
Mérida, Spain (today 790 m). The total length of all
aqueduct arch bridges of the
Aqua Marcia to
Rome, constructed from 144 to 140 BC, amounts to 10 km.[8]
The longest segmental arch bridge was the c. 1,100 m long
Trajan's Bridge, whose wooden superstructure was supported by twenty concrete piers.[2] The
Bridge at Limyra in modern-day Turkey, consisting of twenty-six flat brick arches, features the greatest lengths of all extant masonry structures in this category (360 m).
The tallest bridge was the
Pont du Gard, which carried water across the
Gard river to
Nîmes, southern France. The 270 m long
aqueduct bridge was constructed in three tiers which measure successively 20.5 m, 19.5 m and 7.4 m, adding up to a total height of 47.4 m above the water-level. When crossing deeper valleys, Roman hydraulic engineers preferred
inverted siphons over bridges for reasons of relative economics; this is evident in the
Gier aqueduct where seven out of nine siphons exceed the 45 m mark, reaching depths up to 123 m. The tallest road bridges were the monumental
Alcántara Bridge, Spain, and the
bridge at Narni, Italy, which rose above the stream-level c. 42 m and 30 m, respectively.[9]
The widest bridge was the
Pergamon Bridge in
Pergamon, Turkey. The structure served as a substruction for a large court in front of the
Serapis Temple, allowing the waters of the Selinus river to pass unrestricted underneath. Measuring 193 m in width, the dimensions of the extant bridge are such that it is frequently mistaken for a tunnel, although the whole structure was actually erected above ground. A similar design was also executed in the
Nysa Bridge which straddled the local stream on a length of 100 m, supporting a forecourt of the city
theatre.[10] By comparison, the width of a normal, free standing Roman bridge did not exceed 10 m.[11]
The bridge with the greatest load capacity – as far as can be determined from the limited research – was the
Alcántara Bridge the largest arch of which can support a load of 52 t, followed by the Ponte de Pedra (30 t), Puente Bibei (24 t) and Puente de Ponte do Lima (24 t) (all in
Hispania).[12] According to modern calculations, the
Limyra Bridge,
Asia Minor, can support a 30 t vehicle on one arch plus a load of 500
kp/m2 on the remaining surface of the arch.[13] The load limit of Roman arch bridges was thus far in excess of the
live loads imposed by ancient traffic.[12]
Ratio of clear span against rise, arch rib and pier thickness:
The bridge with the flattest arches was the
Trajan's Bridge, with a span-to-rise ratio of about 7 to 1.[2] It also held several other important architectural records (see below).[2] A number of fully stone segmental arch bridges, scattered throughout the
empire, featured ratios of between 6.4 and 3, such as the relatively unknown
Bridge at Limyra, the
Ponte San Lorenzo and the
Alconétar Bridge.[14] By comparison, the Florentine
Ponte Vecchio, one of the earliest segmental arch bridges in the
Middle Ages, features a ratio of 5.3 to 1.
The bridge with the most slender arch was the
Pont-Saint-Martin in the Alpine
Aosta Valley.[15] A favourable ratio of arch rib thickness to span is regarded as the single most important parameter in the design of stone arches.[16] The arch rib of the Pont-Saint-Martin is only 1.03 m thick what translates to a ratio of 1/34 respectively 1/30 depending on whether one assumes 35.64 m[15] or 31.4 m[17] to be the value for its clear span. A statistical analysis of extant Roman bridges shows that ancient bridge builders preferred a ratio for rib thickness to span of 1/10 for smaller bridges, while they reduced this to as low as 1/20 for larger spans in order to relieve the arch from its own weight.[18]
The bridge with the most slender piers was the three-span
Ponte San Lorenzo in
Padua, Italy. A favourable ratio between pier thickness and span is considered a particularly important parameter in bridge building, since wide openings reduce stream velocities which tend to undermine the foundations and cause collapse.[19] The approximately 1.70 m thick piers of the Ponte San Lorenzo are as slender as one-eighth of the span.[20] In some Roman bridges, the ratio still reached one-fifth, but a common pier thickness was around one third of the span.[21] Having been completed sometime between 47 and 30 BC, the San Lorenzo Bridge also represents one of the earliest segmental arch bridges in the world with a span to rise ratio of 3.7 to 1.[14]
The largest canal appears to be the
Canal of the Pharaohs connecting the
Mediterranean Sea and the
Red Sea via the
Nile. Opened by king
Ptolemy II around 280 BC the waterway branched off the
Pelusiac arm of the river running eastwards through the Wadi Tumalat to the
Great Bitter Lake on a length of 55.6 km. There, it turned sharply south following the modern course of the canal and discharged into the Red Sea after altogether 92.6 km. The canal was 10 m deep and 35 m wide, with its sea entrance secured by a
lock.[22] Under
Trajan the
Ptolemaic canal was restored and extended for about another 60 km to the south where it now tapped the main branch of the Nile at
Babylon.[23] A particularly ambitious canal scheme which never came to fruition was
Nero's
Corinth Canal project, work on which was abandoned after his murder.[24]
Note: This section makes no distinction between columns composed of drums and monolithic shafts; for records concerning solely the latter, see
monoliths.
The tallest victory column in
Constantinople was the
Column of Theodosius, which no longer exists, with the height of its top above ground being c. 50 m.[25] The
Column of Arcadius, whose 10.5 m base alone survives, was c. 46.1 m high.[26] The
Column of Constantine may originally have been as high as 40 m above the pavement of the
Forum.[27] The height of the
Column of Justinian is unclear, but it may have been even larger. The height of each of these monuments was originally even higher, as all were further crowned with a colossal imperial statue several times life-size.
The tallest monolithic column was
Pompey's Pillar in
Alexandria which is 26.85 m high with its base and capital and whose monolithic column shaft measures 20.75 m.[29][30] The statue of
Diocletian atop "Pompey's" Pillar was itself approximately 7 m tall.[31]
The tallest
Corinthiancolonnade, a style which was particularly popular in Roman monumental construction, adorned the Temple of Jupiter at
Baalbek, reaching a height of 19.82 m including base and
capital; their shafts measure 16.64 m high. The next two tallest are those of the
Temple of Mars Ultor in Rome and of the Athenian
Olympieion which are 17.74 m (14.76 m) respectively 16.83 m (14 m) high. These are followed by a group of three virtually identical high Corinthian orders in Rome: the
Hadrianeum, the
Temple of Apollo Sosianus and the
Temple of Castor and Pollux, all of which are in the order of 14.8 m (12.4 m) height.[32]
The largest
arch dam was the
Glanum Dam in the French
Provence. Since its remains were nearly obliterated by a 19th-century dam on the same spot, its reconstruction relies on prior documentation, according to which the Roman dam was 12 m high, 3.9 m wide and 18 m long at the crest.[33] Being the earliest known arch dam,[34] it remained unique in antiquity and beyond (aside from the
Dara Dam whose dimensions are unknown).[35]
The largest
arch-gravity dam was the
Kasserine Dam in
Tunisia, arguably the biggest Roman dam in North Africa with 150 m length by 10 m height by 7.3 m width.[36] However, despite its curved nature, it is uncertain whether the 2nd century AD dam structurally acted by arching action and not solely by its sheer weight; in this case it would be classified as a gravity dam[37] and considerably smaller structures in Turkey or the Spanish
Puy Foradado Dam would move up in this category (see sortable
List of Roman dams).
The largest bridge dam was the
Band-e Kaisar which was erected by a Roman workforce on
Sassanid territory in the 3rd century AD.[38] The approximately 500 m long structure, a novel combination of
overflow dam and
arcaded bridge,[39] crossed Iran's most effluent river on more than forty arches.[40] The most eastern Roman civil engineering structure ever built,[41] its dual-purpose design exerted a profound influence on Iranian dam building.[42]
The largest
multiple arch buttress dam was the
Esparragalejo Dam in Spain, whose 320 m long wall was supported on its air face alternatingly by buttresses and concave-shaped arches.[43] Dated to the 1st century AD, the structure represents the first and, as it appears, only known dam of its type in ancient times.[44]
The longest
buttress dam was the 632+ m long
Consuegra Dam (3rd–4th century AD) in central Spain which is still fairly well preserved.[45] Instead of an earth embankment, its only 1.3 m thick retaining wall was supported on the downstream side by buttresses in regular intervals of 5 to 10 m.[43] In Spain, a large number of ancient buttress dams are concentrated, representing nearly one-third of the total found there.[46]
The longest
gravity dam, and longest dam overall, impounds
Lake Homs in Syria. Built in 284 AD by emperor
Diocletian for irrigation, the 2,000 m long and 7 m high masonry dam consists of a concrete core protected by basalt ashlar.[47] The lake, 6 miles long by 2.5 miles wide,[48] had a capacity of 90 million m3, making it the biggest Roman reservoir in the Near East[49] and possibly the largest artificial lake constructed up to that time.[48] Enlarged in the 1930s, it is still a landmark of
Homs which it continues to supply with water.[50] Further notable dams in this category include the little-studied 900 m long Wadi Caam II dam at
Leptis Magna[51] and the Spanish dams
at Alcantarilla and
at Consuegra.
The tallest dam belonged to the
Subiaco Dams at the central Italian
town of the same name.[52] Constructed by
Nero (54–68 AD) as an adjunct to his villa on the
Aniene river, the three reservoirs were highly unusual in their time for serving recreational rather than utilitarian purposes.[53] The biggest dam of the group is estimated to have reached a height of 50 m.[54] It remained unsurpassed in the world until its accidental destruction in 1305 by two monks who fatally removed cover stones from the top.[55] Also quite tall structures were
Almonacid de la Cuba Dam (34 m),
Cornalvo Dam (28 m) and
Proserpina Dam (21.6 m), all of which are located in Spain and still of substantially Roman fabric.
The largest dome in the world for more than 1,700 years was the
Pantheon in Rome.[56] Its
concretedome spans an interior space of 43.45 m,[57] which corresponds exactly to its height from floor to top. Its apex concludes with an 8.95 m wide
oculus. The structure remained
unsurpassed until 1881 and stills holds the title of the largest unreinforced solid concrete dome in the world.[58] The Pantheon has exercised an immense influence on
Western dome construction to this day.[59]
The largest dome out of clay hollowware ever constructed is the
caldarium of the
Baths of Caracalla in Rome. The now ruined dome, completed in 216 AD, had an inner diameter of 35.08 m.[60] For reduction of weight its shell was constructed of
amphora joined together, a quite new method then which could do without time-consuming wooden
centring.[61]
The largest half-domes were found in the
Baths of Trajan in Rome, completed in 109 AD. Several
exedrae integrated into the enclosure wall of the compound reached spans up to 30 m.[57]
The largest stone dome was the Western Thermae in
Gerasa,
Jordan, constructed around 150–175 AD. The 15 m wide dome of the bath complex was also one of the earliest of its kind with a square ground plan.[62]
The longest city walls were those of
Classical Athens. Their extraordinary length was due to the construction of the famous
Long Walls which played a key role in the city's maritime strategy, by providing it with a secure access to the sea and offering the population of
Attica a retreat zone in case of foreign invasions. At the eve of the
Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC),
Thucydides gave the length of the entire circuit as follows:[63][64] 43
stades (7.6 km) for the city walls without the southwestern section covered by others walls and 60 stades (10.6 km) for the circumference of the
Peiraeus port. A corridor between these two was established by the northern Long Wall (40 stades or 7.1 km) and the Phaleric Wall (35 stades or 6.2 km). Assuming a value of 177.6 m for one Attic stade,[65] the overall length of the walls of Athens thus measured about 31.6 km. The structure, consisting of
sun-dried bricks built on a foundation of
limestone blocks, was dismantled after Athens' defeat in 404 BC, but rebuilt a decade later.[66]Syracuse, Rome (
Aurelian Walls) and Constantinople (
Walls of Constantinople) were also protected by very long circuit walls.
The largest
monolith lifted by a single crane can be determined from the characteristic
lewis iron holes (each of which points at the use of one crane) in the lifted stone block. By dividing its weight by their number, one arrives at a maximum lifting capacity of 7.5 to 8 t as exemplified by a
cornice block at the
Trajan's Forum and the
architrave blocks of the Temple of Jupiter at Baalbek.[67] Based on a detailed Roman
relief of a construction crane, the engineer O'Connor calculates a slightly less lifting capability, 6.2 t, for such a type of
treadwheel crane, on the assumption that it was powered by five men and using a three-
pulley block.[68]
The largest monolith lifted by cranes was the 108 t heavy corner cornice block of the Jupiter temple at Baalbek, followed by an architrave block weighing 63 t, both of which were raised to a height of about 19 m.[69] The capital block of
Trajan's Column, with a weight of 53.3 t, was even lifted to c. 34 m above the ground.[70] As such enormous loads far exceeded the lifting capability of any single treadwheel crane, it is assumed that Roman engineers set up a four-masted lifting tower in the midst of which the stone blocks were vertically raised by the means of
capstans placed on the ground around it.[71]
The largest monoliths hewn were two giant building blocks in the quarry of Baalbek: an
unnamed rectangular block which was only recently discovered is measured at c. 20 m x 4.45 m x 4.5 m, yielding a weight of 1,242 t.[72] The similarly shaped
Stone of the Pregnant Woman nearby weighs an estimated 1,000.12 t.[73] Both limestone blocks were intended for the Roman temple district nearby, possibly as an addition to the
trilithon, but were left for unknown reasons at their quarrying sites.[74]
The largest monolith moved was the
trilithon, a group of three monumental blocks in the podium of the Jupiter temple at Baalbek. The individual stones are 19.60 m, 19.30 m and 19.10 m long respectively, with a depth of 3.65 m and a height of 4.34 m.[75] Weighing approximately 800 t on average, they were transported a distance of 800 m from the quarry and probably pulled by the means of ropes and capstans into their final position.[76] The supporting stone layer beneath features a number of blocks which are still in the order of 350 t.[75] The various giant stones of Roman Baalbek rank high among
the largest man-made monoliths in history.
The largest
monolithic columns were used by Roman builders who preferred them over the stacked drums typical of classical Greek architecture.[77] The logistics and technology involved in the transport and erection of extra-large single-piece columns were demanding: As a rule of thumb, the weight of the column shafts in the length range between 40 and 60
Roman feet (c. 11.8 to 17.8 m) doubled with every ten feet from c. 50 over 100 to 200 t.[77] Despite this, forty and also fifty feet tall monolithic shafts can be found in a number of Roman buildings, but examples reaching sixty feet are only in evidence in two unfinished
granite columns which still lie in the Roman quarry of
Mons Claudianus, Egypt.[78] One of the pair, which was discovered only in the 1930s,[79] has an estimated weight of 207 t.[80] All these dimensions, however, are surpassed by
Pompey's Pillar, a free-standing victory column erected in
Alexandria in 297 AD: measuring 20.46 m high with a diameter of 2.71 m at its base, the weight of its granite shaft has been put at 285 t.[29]
The largest monolithic dome crowned the early 6th century AD
Mausoleum of Theodoric in
Ravenna, then capital of the
Ostrogothic kingdom. The weight of the single, 10.76 m wide roof slab has been calculated at 230 t.[81]
The tallest obelisks are all located in Rome, adorning its inner-city squares. The Agonalis obelisk on
Piazza Navona stands highest at 16.54 m without
pedestal, followed by the Esquiline, Quirinale (both 14.7 m), Sallustiano (13.92 m) and the somewhat smaller Pinciano obelisk. Only some of them were inscribed with
hieroglyphs, while others remained blank. These five obelisks of Roman date complement a group of eight
ancient Egyptian obelisks which were carried on imperial order by
obelisk carriers from the Nile to the
Tiber, elevating Rome to the city with the most ancient obelisks to this day.[82]
The longest trackway was the
Diolkos near
Corinth,
Greece, measuring between 6 and 8.5 km.[83] The paved roadway allowed boats to be pulled across the
Isthmus of Corinth, thus avoiding the long and dangerous sea trip around the
Peloponnese peninsula. Working by the
railway principle, with a
gauge of around 160 cm between two parallel grooves cut into the limestone paving,[84] it remained in regular and frequent service for at least 650 years.[85] By comparison, the world's first overland wagonway, the
Wollaton Wagonway of 1604, ran for c. 3 km.
The largest
post and lintel roof by span spanned the
Parthenon in
Athens. It measured 19.20 m between the
cella walls, with an unsupported span of 11.05 m between the interior colonnades.[86]Sicilian temples of the time featured slightly larger cross sections, but these may have been covered by truss roofs instead.[87]
The largest
truss roof by span covered the
Aula Regia (throne room) built for emperor
Domitian (81–96 AD) on the
Palatine Hill, Rome. The timber truss roof had a width of 31.67 m, slightly surpassing the postulated limit of 30 m for Roman roof constructions. Tie-beam trusses allowed for much larger spans than the older prop-and-lintel system and even concrete vaulting: Nine out of the ten largest rectangular spaces in Roman architecture were bridged this way, the only exception being the groin vaulted
Basilica of Maxentius.[88]
Tunnels
The deepest tunnel was the
Tunnels of Claudius, constructed in eleven years time by emperor
Claudius (41–54 AD). Draining the
Fucine Lake, the largest Italian inland water, 100 km east of Rome, it is widely deemed as the most ambitious Roman tunnel project as it stretched ancient technology to its limits.[89] The 5653 m long
qanat tunnel, passing under Monte Salviano, features vertical shafts up to 122 m depth; even longer ones were run obliquely through the rock.[90] After repairs under
Trajan and
Hadrian, the Claudius tunnel remained in use until the end of antiquity. Various attempts at restoration succeeded only in the late 19th century.[91]
The longest road tunnel was the
Cocceius Tunnel near
Naples, Italy, which connected
Cumae with the base of the
Roman fleet,
Portus Julius. The 1000 m long tunnel was part of an extensive underground network which facilitated troop movements between the various Roman facilities in the volcanic area. Built by the architect
Cocceius Auctus, it featured paved access roads and well-built mouthes. Other road tunnels include the
Crypta Neapolitana to
Pozzuoli (750 m long, 3–4 m wide and 3–5 m high), and the similarly sized Grotta di Seiano.[92]
The longest
qanat was the 94 km long
Gadara Aqueduct in northern
Jordan. This recently discovered structure provided for hundreds of years water for Adraa,
Abila and Gadara, three cities of the ancient
Decapolis.[93] Only 35 km long as the crow flies, its length was almost tripled by following closely the contours of the local topography, avoiding valleys and mountain ridges alike.[94] The monumental work seemed to be carried out in seven stages of construction between 130 and 193 AD. The distance between the individual vertical shafts was on average 50 m. Probably the project was initiated by
Hadrian, who had granted privileges to the cities during a longer stay in the Decapolis. The aqueduct remained operational until the
Byzantines lost control of the region after the
Battle of Yarmuk in 636.[95]
The longest tunnel excavated from opposite ends was built around the end of the 6th century BC for draining and regulating
Lake Nemi, Italy.[96] Measuring 1600 m, it was almost 600 m longer than the slightly older
Tunnel of Eupalinos on the isle of
Samos, the first tunnel in history to be excavated from two ends with a methodical approach.[97] The
Albano Tunnel, also in central Italy, reaches a length of 1,400 m.[98] It was excavated no later than 397 BC and is still in service. Determining the tunnelling direction underground and coordinating the advance of the separate work parties made meticulous surveying and execution on the part of the ancient engineers necessary.
Vaulting
The largest
barrel vault by span covered the
Temple of Venus and Roma, Rome. Built between 307 and 312 AD, the vaulted structure replaced the original timber truss roof from
Hadrian's time.[88]
The greatest concentration of mechanical power was the
Barbegal water mill complex in southern
France, constructed in the early 2nd century AD.[99] Sixteen overshot
water wheels fed by an
arcaded aqueduct branch from the main conduit to
Arles produced an estimated 4.5 t of
flour per 24 hours – an output sufficient to feed 12,500 people or the majority of the population of Arles.[100] Water mill batteries are also known from
Amida in Asia Minor, the
Janiculum hill in Rome, and a number of other places throughout the
empire.[101]
The longest
spiral stair belonged to the 2nd century AD
Trajan's Column in Rome. Measuring a height of 29.68 m, it surpassed its successor, the Column of Marcus Aurelius, by a mere 6 cm. Its treads were carved out ouf nineteen massive marble blocks so that each drum comprised a half-turn of seven steps. The quality of the craftsmanship was such that the staircase was practically even, and the joints between the huge blocks accurately fitting. The design of the Trajan's column had a profound influence on Roman construction technique, and the spiral stair became over time an establish architectural element.[102]
The longest straight alignment was constituted by an 81.259 km long section of the
Roman limes in
Germany. The fortified line ran through hilly and densely wooded country in completely linear fashion, deviating in its entire length only once, for a distance of 1.6 km, to avoid a steep valley. The extraordinary accuracy of the alignment has been attributed to the
groma, a surveying instrument which was used by the Romans to great effect in land division and road construction.[103]
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