Learning through play is a term used in education and psychology to describe how a child can learn to make sense of the world around them. Through play children can develop social and cognitive skills, mature emotionally, and gain the self-confidence required to engage in new experiences and environments. [1]
Key ways that young children learn include playing, being with other people, being active, exploring and new experiences, talking to themselves, communication with others, meeting physical and mental challenges, being shown how to do new things, practicing and repeating skills and having fun. [2]
Play enables children to make sense of their world, as children possess a natural curiosity to explore and play acts as a medium to do so.
Definitions of play
In Einstein Never Used FlashCards five elements of children's play are outlined [3]
Additionally, play is characterized by Creativity and Imagination. Creativity is evident in role play, construction activities, and other forms of imaginative play. Imagination allows children to create mental images related to their feelings, thoughts, and ideas, which they then incorporate into their play. [4]
Researchers Beverlie Dietze and Diane Kashin in Playing and Learning seven common characteristics of play include: [5]
There are critical differences between play and work. Play is mostly a self-chosen activity by the child, rather than prescribed by a parent or teacher; it is a process, rather than a predicted outcome or product. Work, on the other hand, has a definite intent and a prescribed outcome. [6]
According to Dietze and Kashin:
In order for an activity to be considered play, the experience must include a measure of inner control, ability to bend or invent reality, and a strong internally based motivation for playing. If parents and educators try to label experiences as play, but in reality have specific requirements for the activity, then it becomes work not play. For example, it is really impossible to play with flash cards whose purpose is to have a child memorize something on each card. This is not playing and children quickly differentiate between pure play and work being disguised as play. [7]
Play is not wasted time, but rather time spent building new knowledge from previous experience. [8] However, long term developmental qualities of play are difficult to research. [9] There are various ways in which researchers may choose to look at the differences between work and play. Researchers may choose definitions of play or work based on:
There are three main groups of play theories: [5]
The way that children learn through play is culturally specific "as result of differences in childrearing beliefs, values, and practices." [13] [14] Play both influences and reflects the way children from different cultures learn. Most western cultures would agree with the previously described definition of play where play is enjoyable, have no extrinsic goals, no prescribed learning that must occur, is spontaneous and voluntary, involves active engagement on the part of the player, involves an element of make-believe. [3] However, that is not so for most others. For example, the Yucatec Maya do not have emotional aspects in make-believe play, and most of their play is reality based.
Yucatec Maya commonly learn through "Intent Community Participation," an approach different from that commonly found among middle class European American families. [11] This approach stresses observation that intertwines individuals in community action.
Unlike children from the U.S., Yucatec Maya children seldom engage in pretend play. Pretend play is considered a form of lying because children are not representing something that actually happens. For example, a Mayan mother told an ethnographer that she would "tolerate" her child pretending that the leaves in the bowl was a form of food. [13] [14] Instead of having imaginary circumstances and friends, they play through various real life situations that reflect everyday life of the Yucatec. For example, children go through the steps of making tortillas, weaving, and cleaning clothing. This relates to not having Age Segregation. Unlike children of the industrialized middle-class who play mainly with children of the same age, The Yucatec Mayan children engage with all ages, exploring activities of daily life.
Different cultures and communities encourage children to play in different ways. For instance, some cultures may prevent parents from joining in play, prohibit children from receiving toys, or may expect children to play in mixed age groups away from adults. They may be expected to grow out of play by 5 or in middle childhood. [15]
Different age groups have different cognitive capabilities. [16] For example, when older Yucatec children pretend to discipline (modeling parental structures and exploring emotions), children who are younger may react negatively because they do not understand that the discipline is a game. [13]
Their culture also emphasizes learning through observation. Children are active participators by observing and modeling activities that are useful to the community. " It is inherently integrated into the daily activities of the compound." [14] Their repeated realistic representations of the adult world are represented through their play.
In the first half of the twentieth century, Susan Isaacs introduced the study of play. This came from the understanding of child development that came from Western Europe and the USA. However, experts such as Gunilla Dahlberg et al. (1999) suggest that Western ways of looking at play cannot be applied cross culturally. Fleer's (1995) work with Australian aboriginal children challenges Western experts as to whether it is ideal to encourage play. She suggests that, "the children she studied did not play, and that it is not necessary for them to do so". [17]
Play is sufficiently important to the UN that it has recognized it as a specific right for all children. [18] Children need the freedom to explore and play. Play also contributes to brain development. Play enables developmental in the prefrontal cortex of mammals, including humans. Evidence from neuroscience shows that the early years of a child's development (from birth to age six) set the basis for learning, behavior and health throughout life. [19] A child's neural pathways are influenced in their development through the exploration, thinking, problem-solving and language expression which occur during play episodes. [20] According to the Canadian Council on Learning, "Play nourishes every aspect of children's development – it forms the foundation of intellectual, social, physical, and emotional skills necessary for success in school and in life. Play 'paves the way for learning'”. [21]
Learning occurs when children play with blocks, paint a picture or play make-believe. During play children try new things, solve problems, invent, create, test ideas and explore. Children need unstructured, creative playtime; in other words, children need time to learn through their play. [3] The level of emotional arousal enacted during play is ideal for consolidation and integration of neural pathways. Allowing the child to direct the play means allowing the child to find the place most comfortable, allowing the promotion of neuroplasticity. Within the playroom where there are endless opportunities for children to engage in self-directed play and create their own schemas allowing the integration of affect and cognition. Play also promotes neuroplasticity development by allowing children to co-construct wordless narratives of self-awareness and transformation. (Stewart, Field, Echterling, 2016)
According to Pascel, "Play is serious business for the development of young learners. This is such an important understanding. A deliberate and effective play-based approach supports young children's cognitive development. When well designed, such an approach taps into children's individual interests, draws out their emerging capacities, and responds to their sense of inquiry and exploration of the world around them. It generates highly motivated children enjoying an environment where the learning outcomes of a curriculum are more likely to be achieved”. [22]
It has been acknowledged that there is a strong link between play and learning for young children, especially in the areas of problem solving, language acquisition, literacy, numeracy and social, physical, and emotional skills. Young children actively explore their environment and the world around them through learning-based play. [23] Play is a vital part of a child's optimal social, cognitive, physical and emotional development. [20] Researchers agree that play provides a strong foundation for intellectual growth, creativity, problem-solving and basic academic knowledge. [3] [24] [25] According to Dorothy Singer, “Through make-believe games children can be anyone they wish and go anywhere they want. When they engage in sociodramatic play, they learn how to cope with feelings, how to bring the large, confusing world into a small, manageable size; and how to become socially adept as they share, take turns and cooperate with each other. When children play, they are learning new words, how to problem solve, and how to be flexible”. [26]
As children learn through purposeful, quality play experience, they build critical basic skills for cognitive development and academic achievement. These include verbalization, language comprehension, vocabulary, imagination, questioning, problem-solving, observation, empathy, co-operation skills and the perspectives of others. [27]
Through play, children learn a set of skills: social skills, creativity, hand-eye coordination, problem solving and imagination. It is argued that these skills are better learned through play than through flashcards or academic drills. [28] Additionally, Slovak researchers Gmitrova and Gmitrov have found evidence clarifying the importance of pretend play as a medium through which children can progress in areas beyond the educational curriculum. [29] Social play will allow a child to grow confident when experimenting with new activities, and become successful at manipulating different symbol systems in a creative and more adept way. The benefits of play are so extensive that it has been deemed an evolutionary and developmentally important activity, allowing children the space to engage in socially appropriate interactions and behaviors that will serve them far into adulthood.
According to Linda Longley and colleagues, experts and parents have different beliefs about the relationship between play activities and learning. While parents ascribe more learning value to structured play activities (e.g., educational videos), experts identify structured activities as "non-play" and associate less learning value with these activities compared to unstructured activities (make-believe, or pretend, play). [30]
Play in the classroom fosters improvements in skills needed to succeed in the transitions from preschool to kindergarten and every opportunity for play is an opportunity for growth in knowledge on subjects such as early literacy, socio-emotional skills, language, mathematics, and it does this for children from both low- and higher-income socioeconomic status. However, in spite of the recognized benefits of play in terms of academics, studies show a stead decrease in kindergartens classes allowance of play-based activities. As public school teachers face pressure to shift their classes towards more academically focused curriculum. (Lynch, 2015)
Play develops children's content knowledge and provides children the opportunity to develop social skills, competences and disposition to learn. [31] Play-based learning is based on a Vygotskian model of scaffolding where the teacher pays attention on specific elements of the play activity and provides encouragement and feedback on children's learning. [32] When children engage in real-life and imaginary activities, play can be challenging in children's thinking. [33] To extend the learning process, sensitive intervention can be provided with adult support when necessary during play-based learning. [32] Play-based learning can also be defined as:
"… children being active and involved in their learning. Children learn best through first-hand experiences… the purpose of play-active learning is that it motivates, stimulates and supports children in their development of skills, concepts, language acquisitions/communication skills and concentration. It also provides opportunities for children to develop positive attitudes and to demonstrate awareness/use of recent learning, skills and competencies, and to consolidate learning." [34]
In 2009, the DCSG outlined several benefits of the playful learning approach in the Early Years setting, including 1) that playful children use and apply their knowledge, skills and understanding in different ways and in different contexts; and 2) playful practitioners use many different approaches to engaging children in activities that help them to learn and to develop positive dispositions for learning. This guidance goes on to state:
"Practitioners cannot plan children's play, because this would work against the choice and control that are central features of play. Practitioners can and should plan for children's play, however, by creating high quality learning environments, and ensuring uninterrupted periods for children to develop their play" [35]
According to researchers Kathy Hirsh-Pasek and Roberta Michnick Golinkoff, “The level of children's play rises when adults play with them. The variety of play children engage in also increases when adults join in. The joining in is different from controlling. Controlling makes children follow their parents' agenda and does not lead to as much cognitive development as when parents follow their children's lead”. [3] Play is the language and currency of children. [36] There are several ways educators/parents/guardians can facilitate children's learning during play: [20] [24] [37]
Forty years of research have shown a positive correlation between play and children's learning. [38] This has led many to conclude that play is beneficial for all learning. However,many such findings may reflect procedural knowledge rather than declarative knowledge. [39] It is not certain whether correlational research can prove or determine what degree of play is responsible for these advantages. [38] The assumption that children can learn declarative information, such as words or facts, simply based on evidence that children acquire skills in play cannot be made. [39] The true value of play is not that it can teach children facts, but that it can help them acquire important procedural knowledge, which is beneficial in acquiring declarative knowledge. [39] In play based learning environments, the classroom is where there are endless opportunities for children to engage in self-directed play and create their own schemas allowing the integration of affect and cognition.
Regarding creativity, meta-analysis has shown unconvincing evidence of pretend play enhancing creativity. [38] Correlation studies have been inconsistent, with some showing relationships only to social pretend play, pretend play, or constructional play, and other studies failing to show relationships to those same constructs. [38] In terms of intelligence, the research has claimed it is not certain whether play promotes intelligence or intelligence promotes play and other adult interventions are no different in promoting intelligence in children. [38] For problem solving, the form of construction play is correlated with solving problems that involve construction (puzzle toys). More recent research has shown, engaging in playful interactions with peers offers children valuable opportunities to develop essential life skills. Through play, children can enhance their problem-solving abilities and learn constructive methods for resolving conflicts. These skills are transferable to real-life situations, allowing children to navigate challenges effectively. Additionally, play fosters the development of self-confidence and problem-solving skills, encourages collaboration and communication with peers, and provides a platform for children to express their ideas and feelings. Furthermore, play contributes to the regulation of children's behavior, emotions, and learning, promoting overall growth and development. [40]
Pretend play, also known as "make-believe play" involves acting out ideas and emotions. Children act out stories that contain different perspectives and ideas. Although some studies show that this type of play does not enhance child development, others have found that it has a large impact on children's language usage and awareness of the perspectives of others. Pretend play can also help with a child's self-regulation in the areas of civility, delayed gratification, empathy, and reduced aggression. It can also improve social skills such as empathy, problem solving, and communication. [41] Play based learning experiences also provide caregivers an opportunity to assess behavioral output and intervene if a child is showing signs of developmental delay or trauma and are able to then recommend services based on those observations made during play.
The Enriched curriculum is an educational program designed to enhance learning experiences for children. It incorporates elements of play-based learning, emphasizing skills like listening, concentration, and communication. This curriculum expands upon nursery education by incorporating both outdoor physical activities and indoor play within smaller group settings. [42]
Some Critics worry that the enriched curriculum might not work for all kids, especially those from different backgrounds. They're concerned it might delay reading and writing lessons, needing extra resources, and not preparing kids well for later school. There's also a question about whether it meets the needs of different types of learners. [43]
Play-based learning programs include
Benefits of Different Types of Play in Child Development
[49]
Free play is observed when children engage in activities based on their preferences, making their own choices regarding what they do and how they do it. It often occurs spontaneously, is enjoyable, and encourages imaginative thinking. This type of play typically unfolds without specific rules imposed by adults, allowing children the freedom to explore, express creativity, and experiment with different approaches.
This type of play is believed to allow children to tap into their creativity and problem-solving abilities as they tackle different tasks and obstacles independently. It also offers them opportunities to express themselves and participate in imaginative scenarios, potentially boosting cognitive development and fostering positive social interactions with peers. Some research suggests that free play may nurture imagination and social skills, which are seen as important for overall growth (Weisberg, Hirsh-Pasek, and Golinkoff, 2013). [50]
Examples of how free play might foster imagination include [51]
Some studies indicate that children from less privileged backgrounds may benefit from playful learning in vocabulary acquisition (Han, Moore, Vukelich, & Buell, 2010).
Research suggests that children may perform better academically when they receive some guidance while exploring independently, compared to being left entirely on their own (Alfieri, Brooks, Aldrich, & Tenenbaum, 2010).
Studies have found that children may grasp concepts like shapes more effectively when they engage in playful activities (Fisher, Hirsh-Pasek, Newcombe, & Golinkoff).
This type of play allows teachers to lead structured activities to teach new concepts and skills. It promotes valuable learning opportunities, teamwork, following instructions,and cooperative learning among children. [52]
Hope-Southcott(2013) [53]and McLennan(2012), Introduce a type of play that entails collaboration between children and teachers in play activities, fostering learning through shared experiences and interaction. Additionally, encourage communication, negotiation, and decision-making skills while promoting positive teacher-student relationships and peer interactions.
Examples of how mutually directed play is beneficial for both children and adults [54]
Adults set up the play environment with specific toys or materials to support learning. For example, a teacher might choose toys for a classroom activity, or a museum might design exhibits for children to explore.
Adults can help children during play by asking questions like "What do you think would happen if...". These questions gently guide children towards learning without rushing them.
Adults introduce new objects during play to spark children's curiosity. For instance, they might say, "I wonder what would happen if you try using this one?" This lets children explore while still focusing on learning.