The Indochinese leopard (Panthera pardus delacouri) is a
leopardsubspecies native to mainland
Southeast Asia and
southern China. In
Indochina, leopards are rare outside protected areas and threatened by habitat loss due to
deforestation as well as
poaching for the illegal wildlife trade. In 2016, the population was previously thought to comprise 973–2,503 mature individuals, with only 409–1,051 breeding adults. The historical range had decreased by more than 90%.[2] However, as of 2019, it is estimated that there are 77-766 mature Indochinese leopards and that their numbers are decreasing.[1]
Pocock described an Indochinese leopard skin as almost rusty-red in ground colour but paler at the sides. It had small rosettes that were mostly 3.8 cm × 3.8 cm (1.5 in × 1.5 in) in diameter and so closely set that it looked dark. The fur was short with less than 2.5 cm (0.98 in) long hair on the back. He commented to have seen only
black leopards from
Johor and other areas in the
Malay Peninsula exhibited in
menageries. He therefore assumed that the proportion of black leopards increases farther south.[3]
Records from camera trapping studies conducted at 22 locations in southern Thailand and peninsular Malaysia between 1996 and 2009 show that Indochinese leopards recorded north of the
Kra Isthmus are predominantly spotted. South of the Isthmus, only
melanistic leopards were recorded.[4] Melanism is quite common in dense
tropical forest habitat, and black leopards are thought to have a selective advantage for ambush.[5]
Distribution and habitat
The Indochinese leopard is distributed in Southeast Asia, where today small populations remain only in
Myanmar,
Thailand,
Malaysia,
Cambodia, and southern
China. In
Laos,
Vietnam and
Singapore it is suspected to have been
extirpated.[1] Peninsular Malaysia and the Northern
Tenasserim Forest Complex on the Thailand-Myanmar border are at present considered strongholds, and eastern Cambodia a priority site.[2]
In Myanmar's
Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary, the leopard population declined so drastically between the 1940s and 1980s, that by 2000 it was estimated as being close to
locally extinct.[6]
In 2015, leopards were recorded for the first time by camera traps in the hill forests of
Karen State.[7]
In Thailand, the Indochinese leopard is present in the
Western Forest Complex,
Kaeng Krachan-
Kui Buri and
Khlong Saeng-
Khao Sok protected area complexes. But since the turn of the 21st century, it has not been recorded any more in the northern and south-central forest complexes of the country.[2]
In
Hala Bala Wildlife Sanctuary on the Thai-Malaysian border, only two leopards walked past camera traps deployed between October 2004 and October 2007.[8]
In Malaysia, the leopard is present in
Belum-Temengor,
Taman Negara and
Endau-Rompin National Parks.[2]
In April 2010, a spotted leopard was seen in a camera trap in Taman Negara National Park, where previously only black leopards were thought to occur.[4] It has also been recorded in secondary forests in
Selangor and Johor states.[9][10]
In Laos, 25 different leopards walked past
camera traps set up over an area of 500 km2 (190 sq mi) in the
Nam Et-Phou Louey National Biodiversity Conservation Area between April 2003 and June 2004.[11] Leopards are reported to occur in
Nam Kan National Protected Area as well.[12]
In 1996, three leopards were fitted with
radio collars in the south–central part of
Kaeng Krachan National Park, a hilly terrain with seasonal evergreen forest. The study revealed
home ranges of two male leopards of 14.6–18.0 km2 (5.6–6.9 sq mi), and of a female of 8.8 km2 (3.4 sq mi). They all preferred habitat where prey species accumulated and offered potential hunting opportunities, namely at altitudes of 500–600 m (1,600–2,000 ft), river and valley corridors, and the main road, prior to higher elevations and forested terrain. Both male leopards slightly extended their home range during the wet season of June to October.[19]Sambar deer,
red muntjac, Malayan porcupine and
gaur are the most abundant potential prey species in this protected area.[20]
Between 1994 and 1999, ten leopards were fitted with radio collars in the northwestern part of
Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary and followed over 9–41 months. The analysis of tracking data revealed mean annual home ranges of adult males of 35.2–64.6 km2 (13.6–24.9 sq mi). Six adult females had the largest in
Asia recorded home ranges of 17.8–34.2 km2 (6.9–13.2 sq mi), which they all extended in the dry season from November to April. All leopards preferred dry evergreen and mixed
deciduous forest with flat slope near water courses.[21]
Wild boar, macaque and
lesser mouse deer were identified as the main potential prey species for the leopard in a highly fragmented secondary forest in Malaysia's Selangor area.[22]
An increasingly growing threat is hunting for the illegal
wildlife trade, which is showing its potential to do maximum harm in minimal time:[24] leopards are increasingly being used as substitutes for tiger parts in
traditional Chinese medicine, with the price of leopard parts rising as tiger parts become scarce.[2]
Habitat destruction
Human traffic inside protected areas negatively affects leopard movements and activity. They show less diurnal activity in areas more heavily used by people.[25] In villages located in
Laos' protected areas, local people consume about 28.2 kg (62 lb) meat of
deer and wild boar annually per household. This offtake amounts to 2,840 kg (6,260 lb)
ungulates per 100 km2 (39 sq mi), which is equivalent to the meat required to sustain several leopards per 100 km2 (39 sq mi).[11][26]
In a highly fragmented
tropical rain forest within Malaysia's capital agglomeration of
Klang Valley leopard density has been estimated at 28.35 individuals per 100 km2 (39 sq mi), which is one of the highest leopard densities reported. As a result of rapid shrinking of the forests, individuals may have been pushed into the remaining forest in this area, so that their population is unexpectedly high. Leopards were mostly affected by construction activities conducted inside the forest.[9]
Illegal wildlife trade
Substantial domestic skin markets exist in Myanmar, in Malaysia for
traditional medicines, and in China for skins and bones, the latter particularly as a substitute for the
tiger in
traditional Asian medicines and tonics. In China, the use of stockpiles of leopard bone is still permitted by the government by medicinal manufacturers, despite the domestic trade ban.[27]
In Myanmar, 215 body parts of at least 177 leopards were observed in four markets surveyed between 1991 and 2006. Among the body parts, a leopard
penis and
testes were openly traded, along with other parts of freshly killed animals. Three of the surveyed markets are situated on international borders with China and Thailand, and attract international buyers, although leopards are completely protected under Myanmar's national legislation. Effective implementation and enforcement of
CITES is considered inadequate.[28]
^
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abPocock, R. I. (1930). "The Panthers and Ounces of Asia". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 34 (2): 307–336.
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abKawanishi, K.; Sunquist, M.E.; Eizirik, E.; Lynam, A.J.; Ngoprasert, D.; Shahruddin, W.N.W.; Rayan, D.M.; Sharma, D.S.K. & Steinmetz, R. (2010). "Near fixation of melanism in panthers of the Malay Peninsula". Journal of Zoology. 282 (3): 201–206.
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^Majerus, M. E. N. (1998). Melanism: evolution in action. New York: Oxford University Press.
^Aung, M.; Swe, K. K.; Oo, T.; Moe, K. K.; Leimgruber, P.; Allendorf, T.; Duncan, C.; Wemmer, C. (2004). "The environmental history of Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary, a protected area in Myanmar (Burma)". Journal of Environmental Management. 72 (4): 205–216.
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^Robichaud, W.; Insua-Cao; Sisomphane, P. C. & Chounnavanh, S. (2010).
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^Li, S.; Wang, D.; Lu, Z. & Mc Shea, W.J. (2010). "Cats living with pandas: The status of wild felids within giant panda range, China". Cat News. 52: 20–23.
^Lovari, S.; Mori, E. (2018). "Seasonal food habits of the endangered Indochinese leopard Panthera pardus delacouri in a protected area of North West Thailand". Folia Zoologica. 66 (4): 242–247.
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^Ngoprasert, D.; Lynam, A.J.; Gale, G.A. (2017). "Effects of temporary closure of a national park on leopard movement and behaviour in tropical Asia". Mammalian Biology. 82: 65−73.
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