Hokkien, Hoklo (Holo), and Minnan people are found in the United States. The
Hoklo people are a
Han Chinese subgroup with ancestral roots in Southern
Fujian and Eastern
Guangdong, particularly around the modern prefecture-level cities of
Quanzhou,
Zhangzhou,
Xiamen and
Chaoshan area. They are also known by various
endonyms (
Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Hok-ló-lâng / Hō-ló-lâng / Ho̍h-ló-lâng / Hô-ló-lâng), or other related terms such as Hoklo people (河洛儂), Banlam (Minnan) people (閩南儂; Bân-lâm-lâng), Hokkien people (福建儂; Hok-kiàn-lâng) or Teochew people (潮州人;Tiê-tsiu-lâng). These people usually also have roots in the Hokkien diaspora in
Taiwan, the
Philippines,
Malaysia,[2]Indonesia,
Singapore,
Burma,
Thailand,
Vietnam, and
Cambodia.
Although around 70% of
Taiwanese people in Taiwan are Hoklo, there are slightly more Taiwanese Americans who are Waishengren (descended from those who came to Taiwan with the KMT) most of whom are not Hoklo.[3][4] Furthermore, Hoklo and Hakka Han people who have roots in Taiwan from before 1945 (Benshengren) are more likely to identify as "Taiwanese".[5]American Community Survey program of the
United States Census Bureau reported that 200,000 Americans identify as "Taiwanese Hoklo people" and 70,000 speak Taiwanese Hokkien at home.
The first Indonesians to move to
Southern California were
Indos (Indonesians of mixed
pribumi and European descent).[6] However, the majority of Indonesians who came in the 1960s were of Chinese descent.[7] Unofficial estimates suggest that as many as 50% of the Indonesians in Southern California are of Chinese descent, and around 50% of the ethnic Chinese population in Indonesia is Hoklo.[8]
Chinese Filipinos are one of the largest
overseas Chinese communities in
Southeast Asia.[9]Sangleys—Filipinos with at least some Chinese ancestry—comprise 18-27% of the Philippine population, totaling up to 30 million people.[10][11] There are approximately 2 million Filipinos with pure Chinese ancestry, or around 2.5% of the population.[12] Minnan peoples are more popularly known as "Hokkienese", or "Southern Fujianese" in English, or Lan-nang, Lán-lâng, Bân-lâm, Minnan in Chinese. The Minnan form 98.7% of all unmixed ethnic Chinese in the Philippines. Of the Minnan peoples, about 75% are from Quanzhou prefecture (specifically, Jinjiang City), 23% are from Zhangzhou prefecture, and 2% are from Xiamen City.[13]
Researchers have looked upon the patterns of immigration of Filipinos to the United States and have recognized four significant waves. The first was connected to the period when the Philippines was part of
New Spain and later the
Spanish East Indies; Filipinos, via the
Manila galleons, would migrate to North America.
The second wave was during the period when the Philippines
were a territory of the United States; as
U.S. Nationals, Filipinos were unrestricted from immigrating to the US by the
Immigration Act of 1917 that restricted other Asians. This wave of immigration has been referred to as the manong generation.[16][17][18] Filipinos of this wave came for different reasons, but the majority were laborers, predominantly Ilocano and Visayan. This wave of immigration was distinct from other Asian Americans, due to American influences, and education, in the Philippines; thefore they did not see themselves as aliens when they immigrated to the United States.[19] During the
Great Depression, Filipino Americans were also affected, losing jobs, and being the target of race-based violence.[20] This wave of immigration ended due to the
Philippine Independence Act in 1934, which restricted immigration to 50 persons a year.
Some Hokkien people in the Philippines adopted Spanish-style surnames, many of which ended with "-co" (
Chinese: 哥;
Pe̍h-ōe-jī: ko / koh), which means "older brother", a term used by Hokkien Filipinos to address each other. Some of these surnames were also brought to America.[21]
Hoklo Taiwanese people are about 70% of the population of Taiwan, but the first wave of Taiwanese immigrants to America were mostly
Waishengren, most of whom were not Hoklo. Hoklo people started immigrating in larger numbers after the 1960s.[22]
Lanhee Chen (陳仁宜; 1978-), an American policy expert, academic, and political commentator. Chen currently serves as the Director of Domestic Policy Studies and lecturer at
Stanford University, and Lecturer in Law at
Stanford Law School
^"Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 October 2013. Retrieved 26 February 2014.
^"Sangley, Intsik und Sino : die chinesische Haendlerminoritaet in den Philippine". Library.wur.nl. Retrieved 2016-07-29.
^"The ethnic Chinese variable in domestic and foreign policies in Malaysia and Indonesia" (PDF). Summit.sfu.ca. Retrieved 2012-04-23.
^"Senate declares Chinese New Year as special working holiday". Senate.gov.ph. Retrieved 2016-07-29.
^Ng, Maria; Philip Holden (1 September 2006). Reading Chinese transnationalisms: society, literature, film. Hong Kong University Press. p. 20.
ISBN978-962-209-796-4.
^"The First Chinese Contract Laborers in Hawaii, 1852" (PDF). Evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu. Retrieved 2016-07-29.
^"Filipino American History". Northern California Pilipino American Student Organization. California State University, Chico. January 29, 1998. Retrieved June 7, 2011. These Filipino pioneers were known as the "manong generation" since most of them came from Ilokos Sur, Iloilo, and Cavite in the Philippines.
^"Learn about our culture". Filipino Student Association. Saint Louis University. Retrieved June 7, 2011. These Filipino pioneers were known as the "manong generation" since most of them came from Ilokos Sur, Iloilo, and Cavite in the Philippines.
^Jackson, Yo (2006). Encyclopedia of multicultural psychology. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE. p. 216.
ISBN978-1-4129-0948-8. Retrieved June 7, 2011. Included in this group were Pensionados, Sakadas, Alaskeros, and Manongs primarily from the Illocos and Visayas regions. "
^Starr, Kevin (2009). Golden dreams: California in an age of abundance, 1950–1963. New York: Oxford University Press US. p. 450.
ISBN978-0-19-515377-4. Retrieved April 27, 2011. They were, however, officially under the protection of the United States, which governed the Philippines, and herein they took a distinctive characteristics. First of all, they had been inculcated in the Philippines, through the American-sponsored education system and through the general point of view of a colonial society strongly under American influence, in the belief that all men were created equal, in fact and under the law, and that included them. Second, they spoke English, excellently in many cases, thanks once again to the American sponsored educational system in the Philippines. Filipino migrant workers did not see themselves as aliens. "
^Austin, Joe; Michael Willard (1998). Generations of youth: youth cultures and history in twentieth-century America. New York: NYU Press. pp. 118–135.
ISBN978-0-8147-0646-6. Retrieved April 27, 2011.
^Woo Louie, Emma. Chinese American Names: Tradition and Transition. p. 41.
^Lai, Him Mark. Becoming Chinese American: A History of Communities and Institutions. p. 243
Yang, Eveline (2001), "Indonesian Americans", in Lehman, Jeffrey, Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America, 2 (second ed.), Gale Group, pp. 897–905,
ISBN978-0-7876-3986-0
Barnes, Jessica S.; Bennett, Claudette E. (February 2002), The Asian Population: 2000 (PDF), U.S. Census 2000, U.S. Department of Commerce, retrieved 2009-09-30
Cunningham, Clark E. (2009), "Unity and Diversity among Indonesian Migrants to the United States", in Ling, Huping, Emerging Voices: Experiences of Underrepresented Asian Americans, Rutgers University Press, pp. 90–125,
ISBN978-0-8135-4342-0
Sukmana, Damai (January 2009), "Game of Chance: Chinese Indonesians Play Asylum Roulette in the United States", Inside Indonesia, 95, ISSN 0814-1185, retrieved 31 January 2010
Ding, Picus Sizhi, Southern Min (Hokkien) as a Migrating Language, Springer, 2016
Brown, Melissa J., Is Taiwan Chinese?: The Impact of Culture, Power, and Migration on Changing Identities (Berkeley Series in Interdisciplinary Studies of China), University of California Press, 2004
edited by Robin M Boylorn, Mark P Orbe, Critical Autoethnography: Intersecting Cultural Identities in Everyday Life, Routledge, 2013