Hindu texts or Hindu scriptures are manuscripts and voluminous historical literature which are related to any of the diverse traditions within
Hinduism. Some of the major Hindu texts include the
Vedas, the
Upanishads, and the
Itihasa. Scholars hesitate in defining the term "Hindu scriptures" given the diverse nature of
Hinduism,[1][2] but many list the
Agamas as Hindu scriptures,[1][2][3] and Dominic Goodall includes
Bhagavata Purana and
Yajnavalkya Smriti in the list of Hindu scriptures as well.[1]
History
There are two historic classifications of
Hindu texts: Shruti (
Sanskrit: श्रुति,
IAST: Śruti) – that which is heard,[4] and Smriti (
Sanskrit: स्मृति,
IAST: Smṛti) – that which is remembered.[5] The Shruti texts refer to the body of most authoritative and ancient
religious texts, believed to be eternal knowledge authored neither by human nor divine agent but transmitted by sages (rishis). These comprise the central canon of
Hinduism.[4][6] It includes the four
Vedas including its four types of embedded texts – the
Samhitas, the
Brahmanas, the
Aranyakas and the
Upanishads.[7] Of the Shrutis, the Upanishads alone are widely influential among Hindus, considered scriptures par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions.[8][9]
The Smriti texts are a specific body of
Hindu texts attributed to an author,[7] as a derivative work they are considered less authoritative than Shruti in Hinduism.[5] The Smriti literature is a vast corpus of diverse texts, and includes but is not limited to
Vedāngas, the Hindu epics (such as the Mahabharat and Ramayan), the
Sutras and Shastras, the texts of
Hindu philosophies, the
Puranas, the Kāvya or poetical literature, the Bhasyas, and numerous Nibandhas (digests) covering politics, ethics, culture, arts and society.[10][11]
Many ancient Hindu texts were composed in
Sanskrit and other regional Indian languages. In modern times, most ancient texts have been translated into other
Indian languages and some in non-Indian languages.[1] Prior to the start of the common era, the Hindu texts were composed orally, then memorized and transmitted orally, from one generation to the next, for more than a millennium before they were written down into manuscripts.[12][13] This verbal tradition of preserving and transmitting Hindu texts, from one generation to next, continued into the modern era.[12][13]
Shruti
The Shruti texts, defined as "that which is heard", are texts that are believed to be divine revelations of God and were heard by ancient rishis thousands of years ago. Thus, an author is not attributed to these texts.[14] The origin language of these texts is Sanskrit.[14] The Vedas are considered Shruti texts. The Vedas consist of four parts:
Rig Veda,
Sama Veda,
Yajur Veda, and
Atharva Veda.[15] Each Veda is subcategorized into
Samhitas,
Brahmanas,
Aranyakas, and
Upanishads.[15]
Manuscripts of 18th-century Hindu texts in Sanskrit(Devanagari) and Odia.
The four Vedas (
Rig Veda,
Sama Veda,
Yajur Veda, and
Atharva Veda) are a large body of Hindu texts originating from the
Vedic period in northern India, the
Rig Veda being composed
c. 1200 BCE, and its
Samhita and
Brahmanas complete before about 800 BCE.[16] Composed in
Vedic Sanskrithymns, the texts constitute the oldest layer of
Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of
Hinduism.[17][18][19] Hindus consider the Vedas to be timeless revelation,[16]apauruṣeya, which means "not of a man, superhuman"[20] and "impersonal, authorless".[21][22][23] The knowledge in the Vedas is believed in Hinduism to be eternal, uncreated, neither authored by human nor by divine source, but seen, heard and transmitted by sages.[6]
Vedas are also called shruti ("what is heard") literature,[24] distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are called smṛti ("what is remembered"). The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations, some way or other the work of the
Deity.[citation needed] In the Hindu Epic the
Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to the deity responsible for creation,
Brahma.[25]
There are four Vedas: the
Rigveda, the
Yajurveda, the
Samaveda and the
Atharvaveda.[26][27] Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the
Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the
Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the
Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the
Upanishads (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).[26][28][29]
The Upanishads are a collection of Hindu texts which contain the central philosophical concepts of Hinduism.[8][note 1] The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.[9][30]
The Upanishads are commonly referred to as Vedānta, interpreted to mean either the "last chapters, parts of the
Veda" or "the object, the highest purpose of the Veda".[31] The concepts of
Brahman (Ultimate Reality) and
Ātman (Soul, Self) are central ideas in all the
Upanishads,[32][33] and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus.[33] The central ideas of the Upanishads have had a lasting influence on Hindu philosophy.[8][9][note 2]
More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which ten are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the mukhya (main) or
principal Upanishads.[34][35] The ten mukhya Upanishads are:
Isha,
Kena,
Katha,
Prashna,
Mundaka,
Mandukya,
Taittiriya,
Aitareya,
Chandogya, and
Brihadaranyaka.[36] The mukhya Upanishads are found mostly in the concluding part of the Brahmanas and Aranyakas[37] and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation and passed down
verbally. The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, some in all likelihood pre-Buddhist (6th century BCE),[38] down to the
Maurya period.[39] Of the remainder, some 95 Upanishads are part of the
Muktika canon, composed from about the start of common era through
medieval Hinduism. New Upanishads, beyond the 108 in the Muktika canon, continued being composed through the early modern and modern era, though often dealing with subjects unconnected to Hinduism.[40][41]
The Sutras and Shastras texts were compilations of technical or specialized knowledge in a defined area. The earliest are dated to the latter half of the 1st millennium BCE. The
Dharma-shastras (law books), derivatives of the
Dharma-sutras. Other examples were bhautikashastra "physics", rasayanashastra "chemistry", jīvashastra "biology", vastushastra "architectural science", shilpashastra "science of sculpture", arthashastra "economics" and nītishastra "political science".[44] It also includes
Tantras and
Agama literature.[45]
The Puranas, which mean "history" or "old", are Sanskrit texts which were composed between 3rd century BCE and 1000 CE.[46] The Puranas are a vast genre of Hindu texts that encyclopedically cover a wide range of topics, particularly legends and other traditional lore.[47] Composed primarily in Sanskrit, but also in regional languages,[48][49] several of these texts are named after major
Hindu deities such as
Vishnu,
Shiva, and
Devi.[50][51]
The Puranic literature is encyclopedic,[52] and it includes diverse topics such as
cosmogony,
cosmology, genealogies of gods, goddesses, kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, folk tales, pilgrimages, temples, medicine, astronomy, grammar, mineralogy, humor, love stories, as well as theology and philosophy.[47][49][50] The content is diverse across the Puranas, and each Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves voluminous and comprehensive. The Hindu Puranas are anonymous texts and likely the work of many authors over the centuries; in contrast, most Jaina Puranas can be dated and their authors assigned.[48]
The Mahābhārata, which translates to "Great story of Bharat", was probably compiled between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE, with the oldest preserved parts not much older than around 400 BCE.[59][60] The text probably reached its final form by the early
Gupta period (
c. 4th century CE).[61][62] The composition is traditionally attributed to
Vedavyasa and is made up of over 100,000
shlokas.[63]
The plot of the Mahabharata covers the events of the war between two groups of cousins (the
Pandavas and the
Kauravas) and the aftermath of the
Kurukshetra War.[63] The Mahabharata also teaches about
dharma (duty), the stories of many key figures in Hinduism, and includes the
Bhagavad Gita.[15]
The Bhagavad Gita is made up of 700 shlokas and is the discussion between
Krishna and
Arjuna on the battlefield before the start of the war. Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita teaches Arjuna about atma (soul), God,
moksha, and dharma.[64]
The Ramayana, an ancient Sanskrit text with the earliest part believed to have been composed in the 5th century BCE, is attributed to the sage
Valmiki and contains over 24,000 verses.[65]
The epic covers the life journey of
Rama, an incarnation of Vishnu, along with his wife
Sita, and brother
Lakshmana. Central to the plot is the fourteen-year exile endured by Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana, during which Sita is abducted by
Ravana of
Lanka. Rama, accompanied by Lakshmana,
Hanuman (a devotee of Rama), and an army, engages in a battle with Ravana, ultimately emerging victorious with Rama's slaying of Ravana. The epic concludes with Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana's return to
Ayodhya, where Rama is crowned king and reigns over Ayodhya.[15]
Other Hindu texts
Hindu texts for specific fields, in Sanskrit and other regional languages, have been reviewed as follows:
The Hindu scriptures provide the early documented history of arts and science forms in India such as
music,
dance,
sculptures,
architecture,
astronomy,
science,
mathematics,
medicine and
wellness.
Valmiki's
Ramayana (500 BCE to 100 BCE) mentions music and singing by
Gandharvas, dance by
Apsaras such as
Urvashi,
Rambha,
Menaka,
TilottamaPanchāpsaras, and by
Ravana's wives who excelling in nrityageeta or "singing and dancing" and nritavaditra or "playing musical instruments").[93] The evidence of earliest dance related texts are in Natasutras, which are mentioned in the text of
Panini, the sage who wrote the classic on
Sanskrit grammar, and who is dated to about 500 BCE.[94][95] This performance arts related
Sutra text is mentioned in other late Vedic texts, as are two scholars names Shilalin (
IAST: Śilālin) and Krishashva (Kṛśaśva), credited to be pioneers in the studies of ancient drama, singing, dance and Sanskrit compositions for these arts.[94][96] Richmond et al. estimate the Natasutras to have been composed around 600 BCE, whose complete manuscript has not survived into the modern age.[94][95]
^These include rebirth, karma, moksha, ascetic techniques and renunciation.
Olivelle (1998)
^Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism.
References
^
abcdDominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press,
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^
abKlaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition, State University of New York Press,
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^RC Zaehner (1992), Hindu Scriptures, Penguin Random House,
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^
abJames Lochtefeld (2002), "Shruti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing.
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^
abJames Lochtefeld (2002), "Smrti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing,
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abcWendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press,
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^Purushottama Bilimoria (2011), The idea of Hindu law, Journal of Oriental Society of Australia, Vol. 43, pp. 103–130
^Roy Perrett (1998), Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study, University of Hawaii Press,
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abMichael Witzel, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing Ltd.,
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abWilliam Graham (1993), Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion, Cambridge University Press,
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abRoger R. Keller, "Hinduism," Light and Truth: A Latter-day Saint Guide to World Religions (Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center; Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2012), 16–39.
^see e.g.
MacDonell 2004, pp. 29–39; Sanskrit literature (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09
^see e.g.
Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957, p. 3; Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in:
Flood 2003, p. 68;
MacDonell 2004, pp. 29–39; Sanskrit literature (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09
^
abGavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press,
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^Bloomfield, M. The Atharvaveda and the Gopatha-Brahmana, (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde II.1.b.) Strassburg 1899; Gonda, J. A history of Indian literature: I.1 Vedic literature (Samhitas and Brahmanas); I.2 The Ritual Sutras. Wiesbaden 1975, 1977
^A Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology,
ISBN978-0-595-38455-6, pp. 8–14; George M. Williams (2003), Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press,
ISBN978-0-19-533261-2, page 285
^Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,
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^Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al.), State University of New York Press,
ISBN978-0-7914-1080-6, p. 39; Quote: "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self."; Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin,
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^Max Muller,
The Upanishads, Part 1, Oxford University Press, page LXXXVI footnote 1
^Andrew Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press,
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^Karl Potter (1991), Presuppositions of India's Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass,
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^Jan Gonda (1970 through 1987), A History of Indian Literature, Volumes 1 to 7, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,
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^Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta (1981), Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, A History of Indian Literature, Volume 2, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,
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abcGreg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge,
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abJohn Cort (1993), Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts (Editor: Wendy Doniger), State University of New York Press,
ISBN978-0-7914-1382-1, pp. 185–204
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abGregory Bailey (2003), The Study of Hinduism (Editor: Arvind Sharma), The University of South Carolina Press,
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^Ludwik Sternbach (1974), Subhāṣita: Gnomic and Didactic Literature, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,
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^Hartmut Scharfe, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,
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