The Gujarati language is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Indian state of Gujarat. Much of its phonology is derived from Sanskrit.
Front | Central | Back | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Close | i | u | ||
Close-mid | e | ə | o | |
Open-mid | ɛ | ɔ | ||
Open | (æ) | ɑ |
Labial |
Dental/ Alveolar |
Retroflex |
Postal. / Palatal |
Velar | Glottal | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | m | n | ɳ | ||||
Plosive | voiceless | p | t | ʈ | tʃ | k | |
voiced | b | d | ɖ | dʒ | ɡ | ||
aspirated | pʰ | tʰ | ʈʰ | tʃʰ | kʰ | ||
murmured | bʱ | dʱ | ɖʱ | dʒʱ | ɡʱ | ||
Fricative | voiceless | ( f) | s | ( ʂ) | ʃ | ||
voiced | ( z) | ɦ | |||||
Approximant | ʋ | l | 𝼈 [6] | j | |||
Flap | ɾ |
Phonotactical constraints include:
Gemination can serve as intensification. In some adjectives and adverbs, a singular consonant before the agreement vowel can be doubled for intensification. [13] #VCũ → #VCCũ.
big | [moʈũ] | [moʈʈũ] | big |
straight | [sidʱũ] | [siddʱũ] | straight |
considerably | [kʰɑsũ] | [kʰɑssũ] | considerably |
The matter of stress is not quite clear:
Schwa-deletion, along with a-reduction and [ʋ]-insertion, is a phonological process at work in the combination of morphemes. It is a common feature among Indo-Aryan languages, referring to the deletion of a stem's final syllable's /ə/ before a suffix starting with a vowel. [14]
This does not apply for monosyllabic stems and consonant clusters. So, better put, #VCəC + V# → #VCCV#. It also doesn't apply when the addition is an o plural marker (see Gujarati grammar#Nouns) or e as an ergative case marker (see Gujarati grammar#Postpositions). [17] It sometimes doesn't apply for e as a locative marker.
Stem | Suffix | Suffixed stem | C/V | Del | Notes | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
verb root | [keɭəʋ] | educate | [iʃ] | 1st person singular, future | [keɭʋiʃ] | will educate | CVCəC + VC → CVCCVC | Yes | Polysyllabic stem with /ə/ in its final syllable, with a suffix starting with a vowel (verbal declension). |
[səmədʒ] | understand | [jɑ] | masculine plural, perfective | [səmdʒjɑ] | understood | CVCəC + CV → CVCCCV | Polysyllabic stem with /ə/ in its final syllable, with a suffix starting with a semi-vowel (verbal declension). | ||
[utəɾ] | descend | [to] | masculine singular, imperfective | [utəɾto] | descending | VCəC + CV → VCəCCV | No | Suffix starting with a consonant. | |
[təɾ] | swim, float | [ɛ] | 2nd person singular, present | [təɾɛ] | swimming, floating | CəC + V → CəCV | Monosyllabic. | ||
[ʋəɾɳəʋ] | describe | [i] | feminine, perfective | [ʋəɾɳəʋi] | described | CVCCəC + VC → CVCCəCVC | Consonant cluster. | ||
[ɑɭoʈ] | wallow, roll | [iʃũ] | 1st person plural, future | [ɑɭoʈiʃũ] | will wallow, roll | VCoC + VCV → VCoCVCV | Non-ə. | ||
noun | [ɑɭəs] | laziness | [ũ] | adjectival marker | [ɑɭsũ] | lazy | VCəC + V → VCCV | Yes | Polysyllabic stem with /ə/ in its final syllable, with a suffix starting with a vowel (adjectival marking). |
[ʋəkʰət] | time | [e] | locative marker | [ʋəkte] | at (the) time | CVCəC + V → CVCCV | Sometimes yes — e as a locative marker. | ||
[diʋəs] | day | [diʋəse] | on (the) day | CVCəC + V → CVCəCV | No | Sometimes no — e as a locative marker. | |||
[ɾəmət] | game | [o] | plural marker | [ɾəməto] | games | CVCəC + V → CVCəCV | Plural o number marker suffix. | ||
adjective | [ɡəɾəm] | hot | [i] | noun marker | [ɡəɾmi] | heat | CVCəC + V → CVCCV | Yes | Polysyllabic stem with /ə/ in its final syllable, with a suffix starting with a vowel (noun marking). |
A stem's final syllable's /ɑ/ will reduce to /ə/ before a suffix starting with /ɑ/. #ɑC(C) + ɑ# → #əC(C)ɑ#. This can be seen in the derivation of nouns from adjective stems, and in the formation of passive and causative forms of verb stems. [18]
Stem | Suffix | Suffixed Stem | Reduced | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
cut | [kɑp] | [ɑ] | [kəpɑ] | be cut | Passive | Yes |
[ɑʋ] | [kəpɑʋ] | cause to cut | Causative | |||
cause to cut |
[kəpɑʋ] | [ɑ] | [kəpɑʋɑ] | cause to be cut | Causative Passive | No [a] |
[ɖɑʋ] | [kəpɑʋɖɑʋ] | cause to cause to cut | Double Causative | |||
use | [ʋɑpəɾ] | [ɑ] | [ʋəpɾɑ] [b] | be used | Passive | Yes |
long | [lɑmb] | [ɑi] | [ləmbɑi] | length | Noun |
Between a stem ending in a vowel and its suffix starting with a vowel, a [ʋ] is inserted. [19] #V + V# → #VʋV#. This can be seen in the formation of passive and causative forms of verb stems.
Stem | Suffix | Suffixed stem | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
see | [dʒo] | [ɑ] | [dʒoʋɑ] | be seen |
sing | [ɡɑ] | [ɑɽ] | [ɡəʋɑɽ] | cause to sing |
The second example shows an ɑ-reduction as well.
ə finds itself inserted between the emphatic particle /dʒ/ and consonant-terminating words it postpositions. [20]
one | [ek] | [ekədʒ] | one |
that | [e] | [edʒ] | that |
/ɦ/ serves as a source for murmur, of which there are three rules: [21]
Rule | Formal [a] | Casual | English | |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Word-initial ɦV → V̤ [b] | [ɦəʋe] | [ə̤ʋe] | now |
[ɦɑɽkũ] | [ɑ̤ɽkũ] | bone | ||
2 | əɦVnon-high → V̤non-high, more open |
[səɦelũ] | [sɛ̤lũ] | easy |
[bəɦoɭũ] | [bɔ̤ɭũ] | large | ||
[dəɦɑɽo] | [da̤ɽo] [c] | day | ||
3 | ə/aɦVhigh → ə̤/ɑ̤ (glide) | [ɾəɦi] | [ɾə̤j] | stayed |
[bəɦu] | [bə̤ʋ] | very |
The table below compares declensions of the verbs [kəɾʋũ] ('to do') and [kɛ̤ʋũ] ('to say'). The former follows the regular pattern of the stable root /kəɾ/ serving as a point for characteristic suffixations. The latter, on the other hand, is deviant and irregular in this respect.
Infinitive | Perfective | Imperative | 1sg. Future |
---|---|---|---|
[kəɾʋũ] | [kəɾjũ] | [kəɾo] | [kəɾiʃ] |
[kɛ̤ʋũ] | [kəɦjũ] | [kɔ̤] | [kə̤jʃ] |
The [kɛ̤ʋũ] situation can be explained through murmur. If to a formal or historical root of /kəɦe/ these rules are considered then predicted, explained, and made regular is the irregularity that is [kɛ̤ʋũ] ( romanized as kahevũ).
Thus below are the declensions of [kɛ̤ʋũ] /ɦ/-possessing, murmur-eliciting root /kəɦe/, this time with the application of the murmur rules on the root shown, also to which a preceding rule must be taken into account:
Rule | Infinitive | Perfective | Imperative | 1sg. Future |
---|---|---|---|---|
[kəɦe-ʋũ] | [kəɦe-jũ] | [kəɦe-o] | [kəɦe-iʃ] | |
0 | [kəɦ-jũ] | [kəɦ-o] | [kəɦ-iʃ] | |
2 | [kɛ̤-ʋũ] | [kɔ̤] | ||
3 | [kə̤-jʃ] | |||
→ | [kɛ̤ʋũ] | [kəɦjũ] | [kɔ̤] | [kə̤jʃ] |
However, in the end not all instances of /ɦ/ become murmured and not all murmur comes from instances of /ɦ/.
One other predictable source for murmur is voiced aspirated stops. A clear vowel followed by a voiced aspirated stop can vary with a pair gaining murmur and losing aspiration: #VCʱ ←→ #V̤C.