Europeans are the focus of European
ethnology, the field of
anthropology related to the various
ethnic groups that reside in the
states of Europe. Groups may be defined by common genetic ancestry, common language, or both.
The large majority of Europe's current population would be considered indigenous to their respective nations and/or regions[1] The total number of national minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people, or 14% of 770 million Europeans in 2002.[2] The
Russians are the most populous among Europeans, with a population of roughly 120 million.[3] There are no universally accepted and precise definitions of the terms "
ethnic group" and "
nationality". In the context of European ethnography in particular, the terms ethnic group, people, nationality and ethno-linguistic group are used as mostly synonymous, although preference may vary in usage with respect to the situation specific to the individual countries of Europe.[4]
In 2021 the number of non-EU nationals living in EU members states was 23.7 million (5.3% of the EU population). The countries with the largest population of non-nationals were Germany, Spain, France and Italy. These four Member States represented 70.3% of all non-EU nationals living in the EU Member States.[5] The
population of the European Union, with some 450 million residents, accounts for two thirds of the current European population.
Of the total population of Europe of some 740 million (as of 2010), close to 90% (or some 650 million) fall within three large branches of
Indo-European languages, these being:
Indo-Aryan is represented by the
Romani language spoken by Roma people of eastern Europe, and is at root related to the Indo-Aryan languages of the
Indian subcontinent.
Besides the Indo-European languages, there are other
language families on the European continent which are considered unrelated to Indo-European:
Language isolates:
Basque, spoken in the Basque regions of Spain and France, is an isolate language, the only one in Europe, and is believed to be unrelated to any other living language; though it is related to the extinct
Aquitanian language.
Regarding the
European Bronze Age, the only relatively likely reconstruction is that of
Proto-Greek (ca. 2000 BC). A
Proto-Italo-Celtic ancestor of both Italic and Celtic (assumed for the
Bell beaker period), and a
Proto-Balto-Slavic language (assumed for roughly the
Corded Ware horizon) has been postulated with less confidence.
Old European hydronymy has been taken as indicating an early (Bronze Age) Indo-European predecessor of the later centum languages.
According to geneticist
David Reich, based on
ancient human genomes that his laboratory sequenced in 2016, Europeans descend from a mixture of four distinct ancestral components.[14]
The western
Kipchaks known as
Cumans entered the lands of present-day Ukraine in the 11th century.
The
Mongol/
Tatar invasions (1223–1480), and
Ottoman control of the Balkans (1389–1878). These medieval incursions account for the presence of European
Turks and
Tatars.
Book IX of
Isidore's Etymologiae (7th century) treats de linguis, gentibus, regnis, militia, civibus (concerning languages, peoples, realms, war and cities).
Ahmad ibn Fadlan in the 10th century gives an account of the
Bolghar and the
Rus' peoples.
William Rubruck, while most notable for his account of the
Mongols, in his account of his journey to Asia also gives accounts of the
Tatars and the
Alans.
Saxo Grammaticus and
Adam of Bremen give an account of pre-Christian Scandinavia. The Chronicon Slavorum (12th century) gives an account of the northwestern Slavic tribes.
Gottfried Hensel in his 1741 Synopsis Universae Philologiae published one of the earliest ethno-linguistic map of Europe, showing the beginning of the pater noster in the various European languages and scripts.[16][17]
In the 19th century, ethnicity was discussed in terms of
scientific racism, and the ethnic groups of Europe were grouped into a number of "
races",
Mediterranean,
Alpine and
Nordic, all part of a larger "
Caucasian" group.
The beginnings of ethnic geography as an academic subdiscipline lie in the period following World War I, in the context of
nationalism, and in the 1930s exploitation for the purposes of
fascist and
Nazi propaganda, so that it was only in the 1960s that ethnic geography began to thrive as a bona fide academic subdiscipline.[18]
The origins of modern ethnography are often traced to the work of
Bronisław Malinowski, who emphasized the importance of fieldwork.[19]
The emergence of
population genetics further undermined the categorisation of Europeans into clearly defined racial groups. A 2007 study on the
genetic history of Europe found that the most important genetic differentiation in Europe occurs on a line from the north to the south-east (northern Europe to the Balkans), with another east–west axis of differentiation across Europe, separating the indigenous
Basques,
Sardinians and
Sami from other European populations.
Despite these stratifications it noted the unusually high degree of European homogeneity: "there is low apparent diversity in Europe with the entire continent-wide samples only marginally more dispersed than single population samples elsewhere in the world."[20][21][22]
The total number of national minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people, or 14% of Europeans.[2]
The member states of the
Council of Europe in 1995 signed the
Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. The broad aims of the convention are to ensure that the signatory states respect the rights of national minorities, undertaking to combat discrimination, promote equality, preserve and develop the culture and identity of national minorities, guarantee certain freedoms in relation to access to the media, minority languages and education and encourage the participation of national minorities in public life. The Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities defines a national minority implicitly to include minorities possessing a territorial identity and a distinct cultural heritage. By 2008, 39 member states had signed and ratified the convention, with the notable exception of
France.
Indigenous minorities
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adding to it. (June 2021)
Definitions of what constitutes indigenous minority groups in Europe can vary widely. One criterion is the so-called "time element", or how long the original inhabitants of a land occupied it before the arrival of later settlers. As there is no fixed time frame, the answer to the question of what groups constitute indigenous minorities is often context-dependent. The most extreme view claims that all Europeans are "descendants of previous waves of immigrants", and as such, the countries of Europe are no different from the United States or Canada with regards to who settled where.[23]
Many non-European ethnic groups and nationalities have migrated to Europe over the centuries. Some arrived centuries ago. However, the vast majority arrived more recently, mostly in the 20th and 21st centuries. Often, they come from former colonies of the British, Dutch, French, Portuguese and Spanish empires.
Ashkenazi Jews: approximately 1.4 million, mostly in the
United Kingdom,
France,
Russia,
Germany and
Ukraine. They are believed by scholars to have arrived from Israel via southern Europe[47][48][49][50][51] in the
Roman era[52] and settled in France and Germany towards the end of the first millennium. The Nazi
Holocaust wiped out the vast majority during
World War II and forced most to flee, with many of them going back to Israel.
Bukharan Jews: from
Uzbekistan, approximately 320,000, now half in Israel, 12% in the United States (2/3 in the
New York metropolitan area), 5% the United Kingdom, and 3% scattered in Austria, Germany, Uzbekistan, Canada, and Russia.
Sephardi Jews: approximately 300,000, mostly in
France. They arrived via
Spain and
Portugal in the pre-
Roman[53] and Roman[54] eras, and were forcibly converted or expelled in the 15th and 16th centuries.
Mizrahi Jews: approximately 300,000, mostly in
France, via Islamic-majority countries of the Middle East.
Italqim: approximately 50,000, mostly in
Italy, since the 2nd century BC.
Romaniotes: approximately 6,000, mostly in
Greece, with communities dating at least from the 1st century AD.
Assyrians: mostly in Sweden and Germany, as well as in Russia, Armenia, Denmark and Great Britain (see
Assyrian diaspora). Assyrians have been present in Eastern Turkey since the
Bronze Age (circa 2000 BCE).
Kurds: approximately 2.5 million, mostly in the UK, Germany, Sweden and Turkey.
Horn Africans (
Somalis,
Ethiopians,
Eritreans,
Djiboutians, and the
Northern Sudanese): approximately 700,000, mostly in Scandinavia, the UK, the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Finland, and Italy. Majority arrived to Europe as
refugees. Proportionally few live in Italy despite former colonial ties, most live in the Nordic countries.
Sub-Saharan Africans (many ethnicities including
Afro-Caribbeans,
African-Americans,
Afro-Latinos and others by descent): approximately 5 million in 2007, mostly in the UK and France, with smaller numbers in the Netherlands, Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal and elsewhere.[56]
Latin Americans: approximately 2.2 million in 2007, mainly in Spain and to a lesser extent Italy and the UK.[57] See also
Latin American Britons (80,000 Latin American born in 2001).[58]
Chilean refugees escaping the
Augusto Pinochet regime of the 1970s formed communities in France, Sweden, the UK, former East Germany and the Netherlands.
Venezuelans: around 520,000 mostly in Spain (200,000), Portugal (100,000), France (30,000), Germany (20,000), UK (15,000), Ireland (5,000), Italy (5,000) and the Netherlands (1,000).[citation needed]
South Asians: approximately 3-4 million, mostly in the UK but reside in smaller numbers in Germany and France.
Romani (Gypsies): approximately 4 or 10 million (although estimates vary widely), dispersed throughout Europe but with large numbers concentrated in the Balkans area, they are of ancestral South Asian and
European descent,[63] originating from the
northern regions of the
Indian subcontinent.
Indians: approximately 2 million, mostly in the UK, also in Netherlands, Italy, in Germany and France.
Pakistanis: approximately 1 million, mostly in the UK, but also in France, Spain, Germany and Italy.
Bangladeshi residing in Europe estimated at over 500,000, mostly in the UK.
Sri Lankans: approximately 200,000, mainly in the UK.
Afghans, about 100,000 to 200,000, most happen to live in the UK, but Germany and Sweden have also been popular destinations for Afghanistani immigrants since the 1960s.
Indigenous peoples of the Americas, a scant few in the European continent of American Indian ancestry (often Latin Americans in Spain, France and the UK;
Inuit in
Denmark), but most may be children or grandchildren of U.S. soldiers from American Indian tribes by intermarriage with local European women.
Medieval notions of a relation of the peoples of Europe are expressed in terms of
genealogy of mythical founders of the individual groups.
The Europeans were considered the descendants of
Japheth from early times, corresponding to the division of the known world into
three continents, the descendants of
Shem peopling
Asia and those of
Ham peopling
Africa. Identification of Europeans as "
Japhetites" is also reflected in early suggestions for terming the
Indo-European languages "Japhetic".
The first man that dwelt in Europe was Alanus, with his three sons, Hisicion, Armenon, and Neugio. Hisicion had four sons, Francus, Romanus, Alamanus, and Bruttus. Armenon had five sons, Gothus, Valagothus, Cibidus, Burgundus, and Longobardus. Neugio had three sons, Vandalus, Saxo, and Boganus.
European culture is largely rooted in what is often referred to as its "common cultural heritage".[65] Due to the great number of perspectives which can be taken on the subject, it is impossible to form a single, all-embracing conception of European culture.[66] Nonetheless, there are core elements which are generally agreed upon as forming the cultural foundation of modern Europe.[67] One list of these elements given by K. Bochmann includes:[68]
A specific conception of the individual expressed by the existence of, and respect for, a legality that guarantees
human rights and the
liberty of the individual;[69]
A plurality of states with different political orders, which are condemned to live together in one way or another;[69]
Respect for peoples, states and nations outside Europe.[69]
Berting says that these points fit with "Europe's most positive realisations".[70]
The concept of European culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the
Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of
literary,
scientific,
political,
artistic and
philosophical principles which set it apart from other civilizations. Much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the
Western canon.[71] The term has come to apply to countries whose history has been strongly marked by European immigration or settlement during the 18th and 19th centuries, such as
the Americas, and
Australasia, and is not restricted to Europe.
Christianity has been the dominant religion shaping European culture for at least the last 1700 years.[72][73][74][75][76] Modern philosophical thought has very much been influenced by Christian philosophers such as St Thomas Aquinas and Erasmus, and throughout most of its history, Europe has been nearly equivalent to
Christian culture.[77] The
Christian culture was the predominant force in
western civilization, guiding the course of
philosophy,
art, and
science.[78][79] The notion of "Europe" and the "Western World" has been intimately connected with the concept of "
Christianity and Christendom" many even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unified
European identity.[80]
Christianity is still the largest religion in Europe; according to a 2011 survey, 76.2% of Europeans considered themselves
Christians.[81][82] Also according to a study on Religiosity in the European Union in 2012, by
Eurobarometer, Christianity is the largest religion in the
European Union, accounting for 72% of the
EU's population.[83] As of 2010
Catholics were the largest
Christian group in
Europe, accounting for more than 48% of European Christians. The second-largest Christian group in Europe were the
Orthodox, who made up 32% of European Christians. About 19% of European Christians were part of the
Protestant tradition.[84]Russia is the largest Christian country in Europe by population, followed by
Germany and
Italy.[84] According to Scholars, in 2017, Europe's population was 77.8% Christian (up from 74.9% 1970),[85][86] these changes were largely result of the
collapse of Communism and
switching to Christianity in the former Soviet Union and
Eastern Bloc countries.[85]
Islam has some tradition in the
Balkans and the
Caucasus due to conquest and colonization from the
Ottoman Empire in the 16th to 19th centuries, as well as earlier though discontinued long-term presence in
much of Iberia as well as
Sicily.
Muslims account for the majority of the populations in
Albania,
Azerbaijan,
Kosovo,
Northern Cyprus (controlled by
Turks), and
Bosnia and Herzegovina. Significant minorities are present in the rest of Europe. Russia also has one of the largest
Muslim communities in Europe, including the
Tatars of the
Middle Volga and multiple groups in the Caucasus, including
Chechens,
Avars,
Ingush and others. With 20th-century migrations,
Muslims in Western Europe have become a noticeable minority. According to the
Pew Forum, the total number of Muslims in Europe in 2010 was about 44 million (6%),[87][88] while the total number of Muslims in the European Union in 2007 was about 16 million (3.2%).[89]
Judaism has a long
history in Europe, but is a small minority religion, with
France (1%) the only European country with a Jewish population in excess of 0.5%. The Jewish population of Europe is composed primarily of two
groups, the
Ashkenazi and the
Sephardi. Ancestors of Ashkenazi Jews likely migrated to Central Europe
at least as early as the 8th century, while Sephardi Jews established themselves
in Spain and Portugal at least one thousand years before that. Jews originated in the
Levant where they resided for thousands of years until the 2nd century AD, when they spread around the Mediterranean and into Europe, although small communities were known to exist in Greece as well as the Balkans since at least the 1st century BC. Jewish history was notably affected by
the Holocaust and emigration (including
Aliyah, as well as emigration to
America) in the 20th century. The Jewish population of Europe in 2010 was estimated to be approximately 1.4 million (0.2% of European population) or 10% of the world's Jewish population.[90] In the 21st century,
France has the largest
Jewish population in
Europe,[90][91] followed by the United Kingdom, Germany, Russia and Ukraine.[91]
In modern times, significant
secularization since the 20th century, notably in
secularist France, Estonia and the Czech Republic. Currently, distribution of
theism in Europe is very heterogeneous, with more than 95% in Poland, and less than 20% in the Czech Republic and Estonia. The 2005
Eurobarometer poll[92] found that 52% of EU citizens believe in God. According to a
Pew Research Center Survey in 2012 the
Religiously Unaffiliated (
Atheists and
Agnostics) make up about 18.2% of the
European population in 2010.[93] According to the same Survey the Religiously Unaffiliated make up the majority of the population in only two European countries: Czech Republic (76%) and Estonia (60%).[93]
"
Pan-European identity" or "
Europatriotism" is an emerging sense of personal identification with Europe, or the
European Union as a result of the gradual process of
European integration taking place over the last quarter of the 20th century, and especially in the period after the end of the
Cold War, since the 1990s. The foundation of the
OSCE following the 1990s
Paris Charter has facilitated this process on a political level during the 1990s and 2000s.
From the later 20th century, 'Europe' has come to be widely used as a synonym for the
European Union even though there are millions of people living on the European continent in non-EU member states. The prefix pan implies that the identity applies throughout Europe, and especially in an EU context, and 'pan-European' is often contrasted with
national identity.[94]
^
abcThere is an
ongoing controversy in Moldova over whether Moldovans' self-identification constitute a subgroup of Romanians or a separate ethnic group.
^There is no legal or generally accepted definitions of who is of Norwegian ethnicity in Norway. 87% of population have at least one parent who is born in Norway[citation needed].
^In Norway, there is no clear legal definition of who is Sami. Therefore, exact numbers are not possible.
^Total population of Yiddish estimated at 1.5 million as of 1991, of which c. 40% in Ukraine.
Yiddish at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required),
Eastern Yiddish at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required),
Western Yiddish at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
^Karl Friedrich Vollgraff, Erster Versuch einer Begründung sowohl der allgemeinen Ethnologie durch die Anthropologie, wie auch der Staats und Rechts-philosophie durch die Ethnologie oder Nationalität der Völker (1851), p. 257.
^A. Kumar, Encyclopaedia of Teaching of Geography (2002), p. 74 ff.; the tripartite subdivision of "Caucasians" into Nordic, Alpine and Mediterranean groups persisted among some scientists into the 1960s, notably in Carleton Coon's book The Origin of Races (1962).
^Bayram, Servet; Seels, Barbara (1997), "The Utilization of Instructional Technology in Turkey", Educational Technology Research and Development, 45 (1),
Springer: 112,
doi:
10.1007/BF02299617,
S2CID62176630, There are about 10 million Turks living in the Balkan area of southeastern Europe and in western Europe at present.
^52% of Europeans say no to Turkey's EU membership,
Aysor, 2010, retrieved 7 November 2020, This is not all of a sudden, says expert at the Center for Ethnic and Political Science Studies, Boris Kharkovsky. "These days, up to 15 million Turks live in the EU countries...
^
abThe Guardian (1 August 2011).
"UK immigration analysis needed on Turkish legal migration, say MPs". Retrieved 1 August 2011. The Home Office says that there are about 150,000 Turkish nationals living in Britain at present, with about 500,000 people of Turkish origin living in the country altogether. But Germany, Austria, the Netherlands and France all have larger Turkish communities which are more likely to attract a new wave of legal migration.
^Sayıner, Arda (2018).
"Ankara Historia".
Daily Sabah. Having said that, a few thousand Swedish citizens currently live in Turkey and the number went up 60 percent in 2017. According to Hyden, Turkish hospitality played an important part behind this increase. She said around 150,000 Turkish citizens live in Sweden, which has a total population of 10 million.
^Dursun-Özkanca, Oya (2019), Turkey–West Relations: The Politics of Intra-alliance Opposition,
Cambridge University Press, p. 40,
ISBN978-1108488624, One-fifth of the Turkish population is estimated to have Balkan origins. Additionally, more than one million Turks live in Balkan countries, constituting a bridge between these countries and Turkey.
^В России проживает около миллиона иудеев [About 1 million Jews live in Russia]. interfax-religion.ru (in Russian). 26 February 2015.
Archived from the original on 27 December 2019. Retrieved 11 June 2020.
^* "In the broader sense of the term, a Jew is any person belonging to the worldwide group that constitutes, through descent or conversion, a continuation of the ancient Jewish people, who were themselves descendants of the Hebrews of the Old Testament."
"The Jewish people as a whole, initially called Hebrews (ʿIvrim), were known as Israelites (Yisreʾelim) from the time of their entrance into the Holy Land to the end of the Babylonian Exile (538 BC)."
^Diamond, Jared (1993).
"Who are the Jews?"(PDF). Archived from
the original(PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 8 November 2010. Natural History 102:11 (November 1993): 12–19.
^Behar, Doron M.; Metspalu, Mait; Baran, Yael; Kopelman, Naama M.; Yunusbayev, Bayazit; Gladstein, Ariella; Tzur, Shay; Sahakyan, Havhannes; Bahmanimehr, Ardeshir; Yepiskoposyan, Levon; Tambets, Kristiina; Khusnutdinova, Elza K.; Kusniarevich, Aljona; Balanovsky, Oleg; Balanovsky, Elena; Kovacevic, Lejla; Marjanovic, Damir; Mihailov, Evelin; Kouvatsi, Anastasia; Traintaphyllidis, Costas; King, Roy J.; Semino, Ornella; Torroni, Antonio; Hammer, Michael F.; Metspalu, Ene; Skorecki, Karl; Rosset, Saharon; Halperin, Eran; Villems, Richard; Rosenberg, Noah A. (2013).
"No Evidence from Genome-Wide Data of a Khazar Origin for the Ashkenazi Jews". Human Biology Open Access Pre-Prints (Paper 41).
Archived from the original on 11 October 2014. Retrieved 11 June 2020.
^"Archived copy". www.destatis.de. Archived from
the original on 16 November 2010. Retrieved 11 January 2022.{{
cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
link)
^ab Hisitione autem ortae sunt quattuor gentes Franci, Latini, Albani et Britti. ab Armenone autem quinque: Gothi, Valagothi, Gebidi, Burgundi, Longobardi. a Neguio vero quattuor Boguarii, Vandali, Saxones et Turingi.trans. J. A. Giles. London: Henry G. Bohn, 1848.Archived 2009-07-27 at the
Wayback Machine
^Cederman (2001:2) remarks: "Given the absence of an explicit legal definition and the plethora of competing identities, it is indeed hard to avoid the conclusion that Europe is an essentially contested concept." Cf. also Davies (1996:15); Berting (2006:51).
^K. Bochmann (1990) L'idée d'Europe jusqu'au XXè siècle, quoted in Berting (2006:52). Cf. Davies (1996:15): "No two lists of the main constituents of European civilization would ever coincide. But many items have always featured prominently: from the roots of the Christian world in Greece, Rome and Judaism to modern phenomena such as the Enlightenment, modernization, romanticism, nationalism, liberalism, imperialism, totalitarianism."
^Religions in Global Society – Page 146, Peter Beyer – 2006
^Cambridge University Historical Series, An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects, p.40: Hebraism, like Hellenism, has been an all-important factor in the development of Western Civilization; Judaism, as the precursor of Christianity, has indirectly had had much to do with shaping the ideals and morality of western nations since the christian era.
^Caltron J.H Hayas, Christianity and Western Civilization (1953), Stanford University Press, p.2: That certain distinctive features of our Western civilization — the civilization of western Europe and of America— have been shaped chiefly by Judaeo – Graeco – Christianity, Catholic and Protestant.
^Horst Hutter, University of New York, Shaping the Future: Nietzsche's New Regime of the Soul And Its Ascetic Practices (2004), p.111:three mighty founders of Western culture, namely Socrates, Jesus, and Plato.
^Fred Reinhard Dallmayr, Dialogue Among Civilizations: Some Exemplary Voices (2004), p.22: Western civilization is also sometimes described as "Christian" or "Judaeo- Christian" civilization.
^Dawson, Christopher; Glenn Olsen (1961). Crisis in Western Education (reprint ed.). CUA Press. p. 108.
ISBN978-0-8132-1683-6.
^
ab"Religiously Unaffiliated". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 18 December 2012. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
^This is particularly the case among proponents of the so-called
confederalist or
neo-functionalist position on European integration. Eder and Spohn (2005:3) note: "The evolutionary thesis of the making of a European identity often goes with the assumption of a simultaneous decline of national identities. This substitution thesis reiterates the well-known confederalist/neo-functionalist position in the debate on European integration, arguing for an increasing replacement of the nation-state by European institutions, against the intergovernmentalist/realist position, insisting on the continuing primacy of the nation-state."
Dow, R. R.; Bockhorn, O. (2004), The Study of European Ethnology in Austria, Progress in European Ethnology, Ashgate Publishing,
ISBN978-0-7546-1747-1
Eberhardt, Piotr; Owsinski, Jan (2003), Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-century Central Eastern Europe, M.E. Sharpe,
ISBN978-0-7656-0665-5
Eder, Klaus; Spohn, Willfried (2005). Collective Memory and European Identity: The Effects of Integration and Enlargement. Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Company.
ISBN978-0-7546-4401-9.
Hobsbawm, E. J.; Kertzer, David J. (1992), "Ethnicity and Nationalism in Europe Today", Anthropology Today, 8 (1): 3–8,
doi:
10.2307/3032805,
JSTOR3032805
Minahan, James (2000), One Europe, many nations: a historical dictionary of European national groups, Greenwood Publishing Group,
ISBN978-0-313-30984-7
Panikos Panayi, Outsiders: A History of European Minorities (London: Hambledon Press, 1999)
Olson, James Stuart; Pappas, Lee Brigance; Pappas, Nicholas Charles (1994), An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empire, Greenwood,
ISBN978-0-313-27497-8
O'Néill, Diarmuid (2005), Rebuilding the Celtic languages: reversing language shift in the Celtic countries, Y Lolfa,
ISBN978-0-86243-723-7
Panayi, Panikos (1999), An Ethnic History of Europe Since 1945: Nations, States and Minorities, Longman,
ISBN978-0-582-38135-3
Parman, S., ed. (1998), Europe in the Anthropological Imagination, Prentice Hall
Stephens, Meic (1976), Linguistic Minorities in Western Europe, Gomer Press,
ISBN978-0-608-18759-4
Szaló, Csaba (1998), On European Identity: Nationalism, Culture & History, Masaryk University,
ISBN978-80-210-1839-6
^Pan, Christoph; Pfeil, Beate S. (2003). "The Peoples of Europe by Demographic Size, Table 1". National Minorities in Europe: Handbook. Wien: Braumueller. p. 11f.
ISBN978-3-7003-1443-1. (a breakdown by country of these 87 groups is given in Table 5, pp. 17–31.)