The dog (Canis familiaris or Canis lupus familiaris) is a
domesticated descendant of the
wolf. Also called the domestic dog, it is
derived from
extinct gray wolves, and the gray wolf is the dog's closest living relative. The dog was the first
species to be domesticated by
humans. Experts estimate that
hunter-gatherers domesticated dogs more than 15,000 years ago, which was before the
development of agriculture. Due to their long association with humans, dogs have expanded to a large number of domestic individuals and gained the ability to thrive on a
starch-rich diet that would be inadequate for other
canids.[4]
In 1758, the Swedish botanist and zoologist
Carl Linnaeus published in his Systema Naturae, the two-word naming of species (
binomial nomenclature). Canis is the
Latin word meaning "dog",[6] and under this
genus, he listed the domestic dog, the
wolf, and the
golden jackal. He classified the domestic dog as Canis familiaris and, on the next page, classified the grey wolf as Canis lupus.[2] Linnaeus considered the dog to be a separate species from the wolf because of its upturning tail (cauda recurvata in
Latin term), which is not found in any other
canid.[7]
In 1999, a study of
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) indicated that the domestic dog may have originated from the grey wolf, with the
dingo and
New Guinea singing dog breeds having developed at a time when human communities were more isolated from each other.[8] In the third edition of Mammal Species of the World published in 2005, the
mammalogistW. Christopher Wozencraft listed under the wolf Canis lupus its wild subspecies and proposed two additional subspecies, which formed the domestic dog clade: familiaris, as named by Linnaeus in 1758 and, dingo named by Meyer in 1793. Wozencraft included hallstromi (the New Guinea singing dog) as another name (
junior synonym) for the dingo. Wozencraft referred to the mtDNA study as one of the guides informing his decision.[3] Mammalogists have noted the inclusion of familiaris and dingo together under the "domestic dog" clade[9] with some debating it.[10]
In 2019, a workshop hosted by the
IUCN/Species Survival Commission's Canid Specialist Group considered the dingo and the New Guinea singing dog to be
feralCanis familiaris and therefore did not assess them for the
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.[11]
The earliest remains generally accepted to be those of a domesticated dog were discovered in
Bonn-Oberkassel, Germany.
Contextual,
isotopic,
genetic, and
morphological evidence shows that this dog was not a local wolf.[12] The dog was dated to 14,223 years ago and was found buried along with a man and a woman, all three having been sprayed with red
hematite powder and buried under large, thick basalt blocks. The dog had died of
canine distemper.[13] Earlier remains dating back to 30,000 years ago have been described as
Paleolithic dogs, but their status as dogs or wolves remains debated[14] because considerable morphological diversity existed among wolves during the
Late Pleistocene.[1]
This timing indicates that the dog was the first species to be domesticated[15][16] in the time of
hunter-gatherers,[17] which predates agriculture.[1]DNA sequences show that all ancient and modern dogs share a common ancestry and descended from an ancient, extinct wolf population which was distinct from the
modern wolf lineage.[18][17]
The dog is a classic example of a domestic animal that likely travelled a
commensal pathway into domestication.[14][19] The questions of when and where dogs were first domesticated have taxed geneticists and archaeologists for decades.[15] Genetic studies suggest a domestication process commencing over 25,000 years ago, in one or several wolf populations in either Europe, the high Arctic, or eastern Asia.[20] In 2021, a
literature review of the current evidence
infers that the dog was domesticated in
Siberia 23,000 years ago by
ancient North Siberians, then later dispersed eastward into the Americas and westward across Eurasia,[12] with dogs likely accompanying the first humans to inhabit the Americas.[12]
Dogs are the most variable mammal on earth, with around 450 globally recognized
dog breeds.[20][21] In the
Victorian era, directed human
selection developed the modern
dog breeds, which resulted in a vast range of
phenotypes.[16] Most breeds were derived from small numbers of founders within the last 200 years.[16][20] Since then, dogs have undergone rapid
phenotypic change and have been subjected to
artificial selection by humans. The skull, body, and limb proportions between breeds display more phenotypic diversity than can be found within the entire order of carnivores. These breeds possess distinct traits related to morphology, which include body size, skull shape, tail phenotype, fur type and colour.[16] Their behavioural traits include guarding, herding, hunting,[16] retrieving, and scent detection. Their personality traits include hypersocial behavior, boldness, and aggression.[16] Present-day dogs are dispersed around the world.[20] An example of this dispersal is the numerous modern breeds of European lineage during the Victorian era.[17]
All healthy dogs, regardless of their size and type, have an identical
skeletal structure with the exception of the number of bones in the tail, although there is significant skeletal variation between dogs of different types.[22][23] The dog's skeleton is well adapted for running; the
vertebrae on the neck and back have extensions for back muscles, consisting of
epaxial muscles and hypaxial muscles, to connect to; the long ribs provide room for the
heart and
lungs; and the shoulders are unattached to the skeleton, allowing for flexibility.[22][23][24]
Compared to the dog's wolf-like ancestors, selective breeding since domestication has seen the dog's skeleton larger in size for larger types such as
mastiffs and miniaturised for smaller types such as
terriers;
dwarfism has been selectively used for some types where short legs are advantageous, such as
dachshunds and
corgis.[23] Most dogs naturally have 26 vertebrae in their tails, but some with
naturally short tails have as few as three.[22]
The dog's skull has identical components regardless of breed type, but there is significant
divergence in terms of skull shape between types.[23][25] The three basic skull shapes are the elongated dolichocephalic type as seen in
sighthounds, the intermediate mesocephalic or mesaticephalic type, and the very short and broad brachycephalic type exemplified by mastiff type skulls.[23][25]
Dogs' senses include vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch, and
magnetoreception. One study suggests that dogs can feel small variations in
Earth's magnetic field.[26] Dogs prefer to defecate with their spines aligned in a north-south position in calm
magnetic field conditions.[27]
Dogs' vision is
dichromatic; the dog's visual world consists of yellows, blues, and grays. They have difficulty differentiating between red and green. The divergence of the eye axis of dogs ranges from 12–25°, depending on the breed. Dogs' eyes of different breeds can have different retina configurations. The
fovea centralis area of dogs' eyes, which is attached to a
nerve fiber, is the most sensitive to
photons.[28]
The
coats of domestic dogs are of two varieties: "double" being familiar with dogs (as well as wolves) originating from colder climates, made up of a coarse
guard hair and a soft
down hair, or "single", with the topcoat only. Breeds may have an occasional "blaze", stripe, or "star" of white fur on their chest or underside.[29] Premature graying can occur in dogs as early as one year of age; this is associated with
impulsive behaviors,
anxiety behaviors, and fear of unfamiliar noise, people, or animals.[30]
Dewclaw
A dog's
dewclaw is the five
digits in the dog's forelimb and hind legs. Dogs' forelimbs' dewclaws are attached by bone and ligament, while the dogs' hind legs' are attached by skin to the limb. Most dogs aren't born with dewclaws in their hind legs, and some are without them in their forelimbs. Dogs' dewclaws consist of the
proximal phalanxes and distal phalanxes. Some publications thought that dewclaws in wolves, who usually do not have dewclaws, were a sign of hybridization with dogs.[31][32]
Tail
A dog's tail is the terminal appendage of the
vertebral column, which is made up of a string of 5 to 23
vertebrae enclosed in muscles and skin that support the dog's back extensor muscles. One of the primary functions of a dog's tail is to communicate their emotional state.[33] The tail also helps the dog maintain balance by putting its weight on the opposite side of the dog's tilt, and it can also help the dog spread its
anal gland's scent through the tail's position and movement.[34] Dogs can have a
violet gland (or supracaudal gland) characterized by
sebaceous glands on the dorsal surface of their tails; in some breeds, it may be vestigial or absent. The enlargement of the violet gland in the tail, which can create a
bald spot from hair loss, can be caused by
Cushing's disease or an excess of sebum from
androgens in the sebaceous glands.[35]
A study suggests that dogs show asymmetric tail-wagging responses to different emotive stimuli. "Stimuli that could be expected to elicit approach tendencies seem to be associated with [a] higher amplitude of tail-wagging movements to the right side".[36][37]
Dogs can injure themselves by wagging their tails forcefully; this condition is called kennel tail, happy tail, bleeding tail, or splitting tail.[38] In some
hunting dogs, the tail is traditionally
docked to avoid injuries. Some dogs can be born without tails because of a DNA variant in the
T gene, which can also result in a congenitally short (bobtail) tail.[39]
The typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds, but the
median longevity (the age at which half the dogs in a population have died and half are still alive) is approximately 12.7 years.[50][51] Obesity correlates negatively with longevity with one study finding obese dogs have a life expectancy approximately a year and a half less than dogs with a healthy weight.[50]
In domestic dogs,
sexual maturity happens around six months to one year for both males and females, although this can be delayed until up to two years of age for some large breeds. This is the time at which female dogs will have their first
estrous cycle, characterized by their
vulvas swelling and producing
discharges, usually lasting between 4 and 20 days.[52] They will experience subsequent estrous cycles semiannually, during which the body prepares for
pregnancy. At the peak of the cycle, females will become estrous, mentally and physically receptive to
copulation. Because the
ova survive and can be fertilized for a week after ovulation, more than one male can sire the same litter.[5] Fertilization typically occurs two to five days after ovulation. After
ejaculation, the dogs are
coitally tied for around 5–30 minutes because of the male's
bulbus glandis swelling and the female's constrictor vestibuli contracting; the male will continue ejaculating until they untie naturally.[53][54] 14–16 days after ovulation, the embryo attaches to the
uterus, and after seven to eight more days, a heartbeat is detectable.[55][56] Dogs bear their litters roughly 58 to 68 days after
fertilization,[5][57] with an average of 63 days, although the length of
gestation can vary. An average litter consists of about six
puppies.[58]
A common breeding practice for pet dogs is to
mate them between close relatives (e.g., between half- and full-siblings).[67]Inbreeding depression is considered to be due mainly to the expression of homozygous deleterious recessive mutations.[68] Outcrossing between unrelated individuals, including dogs of different breeds, results in the beneficial masking of deleterious recessive mutations in progeny.[69]
In a study of seven dog breeds (the
Bernese Mountain Dog,
Basset Hound,
Cairn Terrier,
Brittany,
German Shepherd Dog,
Leonberger, and
West Highland White Terrier), it was found that inbreeding decreases litter size and survival.[70] Another analysis of data on 42,855
Dachshund litters found that as the
inbreeding coefficient increased, litter size decreased and the percentage of stillborn puppies increased, thus indicating inbreeding depression.[71] In a study of
Boxer litters, 22% of puppies died before reaching 7 weeks of age. Stillbirth was the most frequent cause of death, followed by infection. Mortality due to infection increased significantly with increases in inbreeding.[72]
Dog behavior is the internally coordinated responses (actions or inactions) of the domestic dog (individuals or groups) to
internal and external stimuli.[73] Dogs' minds have been shaped by millennia of contact with humans; dogs have acquired the ability to understand and communicate with humans; they are uniquely attuned to human behaviors.[74] Behavioral scientists thought that a set of social-cognitive abilities in domestic dogs that are not possessed by the dog's canine relatives or other highly intelligent mammals, such as
great apes, are parallel to children's social-cognitive skills.[75]
Unlike other domestic species selected for production-related traits, dogs were initially selected for their behaviors.[76][77] In 2016, a study found that only 11 fixed genes showed variation between wolves and dogs.[78] These gene variations were unlikely to have been the result of natural evolution and indicate selection on both morphology and behavior during dog domestication. These genes have been shown to affect the
catecholamine synthesis pathway, with the majority of the genes affecting the
fight-or-flight response[77][79] (i.e., selection for
tameness) and emotional processing.[77] Dogs generally show reduced fear and aggression compared with wolves.[77][80] Some of these genes have been associated with aggression in some dog breeds.[77] Traits of high sociability and lack of fear in dogs may include genetic modifications related to
Williams-Beuren syndrome in humans, which cause
hypersociability at the expense of
problem-solving ability.[81] In a 2023 study of 58 dogs, some dogs classified as
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder-like (ADHD-like) showed lower
serotonin and
dopamine concentrations.[82] A similar study claims that hyperactivity is more common in male and young dogs.[83] A dog can become aggressive because of trauma or abuse, fear or anxiety, territorial protection, or protecting an item it considers valuable.[84]Acute stress reactions from
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) seen in dogs can evolve into
chronic stress.[85] Police dogs with PTSD can often refuse to work.[86]
Dogs have a natural instinct called prey drive (the term is chiefly used to describe
training dogs' habits); the behaviour can be influenced by the dogs' breeds. Dogs' instincts can consider objects or other animals to be their prey or to be their valuables; some dogs have killed
vermin.[87] Puppies or dogs sometimes
bury food underground. A study found that wolves outperformed dogs in finding food caches; the study suggested that it was likely due to a 'difference in motivation' between wolves and dogs.[88] Some puppies and dogs engage in
coprophagy out of habit, stress, for attention, or boredom; most of them will not do it later in life. A study hypothesizes that the behavior was inherited from wolves, who do it to keep their dens free of
intestinal parasites.[89]
Most dogs can swim. In a study of 412 dogs, around 36.5% of the dogs could not swim; the other 63.5% were able to swim without a trainer in a
chlorinated swimming pool.[90] A study of 55 dogs found a correlation between swimming and improvement of the hip
osteoarthritis joint.[91]
Nursing
The female dog may produce
colostrum 1–7 days before giving birth, lasting for around three months.[92][93] Colostrum peak production was around 3 weeks postpartum and increased with litter size.[93] The dog can sometimes vomit and refuse food during
child contractions.[94] In the later stages of the dog's pregnancy,
nesting behaviour may occur.[95] Puppies are born with a
protective fetal membrane that the mother usually removes shortly after birth. Dogs can have the maternal instincts to start grooming their puppies, consume their puppies' feces, and protect their puppies, likely due to their hormonal state.[96][97] While male-parent dogs can show more disinterested behaviour toward their own puppies,[98] most can play with the young pups as they would with other dogs or humans.[99] A female dog may abandon or attack her puppies or her male partner dog if she is stressed or in pain.[100]
Researchers have tested dogs' ability to perceive information, retain it as knowledge, and apply it to solve problems. Studies of two dogs suggest that dogs can learn by
inference. A study with
Rico, a
Border Collie, showed that he knew the labels of over 200 different items. He inferred the names of novel things by exclusion learning and correctly retrieved those new items after four weeks of the initial exposure. A study of another Border Collie, Chaser, documented that he had learned the names and could associate them by verbal command with over 1,000 words.[101]
One study of canine cognitive abilities found that dogs' capabilities are similar to those of
horses,
chimpanzees, or
cats.[102] One study of 18 household dogs found that the dogs could not distinguish food bowls at specific locations without distinguishing cues; the study stated that this indicates a lack of
spatial memory.[103] Dogs demonstrate a
theory of mind by engaging in deception.[104] Another experimental study showed evidence that Australian
dingos can outperform domestic dogs in non-social problem-solving, indicating that domestic dogs may have lost much of their original problem-solving abilities once they joined humans.[105] Another study showed that after undergoing training to solve a simple manipulation task, dogs faced with an unsolvable version of the same problem look at humans, while socialized wolves do not.[106]
Dog communication is how dogs convey information to other dogs, understand messages from humans, and translate the information that dogs are transmitting.[107]: xii Communication behaviors of dogs include eye gaze, facial expression,[108][109] vocalization, body posture (including movements of bodies and limbs), and gustatory communication (scents, pheromones, and taste). Dogs' scent marks their
territories by urinating on them, which is more likely when entering a new environment.[110][111] Both sexes of dogs may also urinate to communicate anxiety or frustration, submissiveness, or when in exciting or relaxing situations.[112] Aroused dogs can be a result of the dogs' higher
cortisol levels.[113] Between 3 and 8 weeks of age, dogs tend to focus on other dogs for social interaction, and between 5 and 12 weeks of age, they shift their focus to people.[114] Belly exposure in dogs can be a defensive behavior that can lead to a bite or to seek comfort.
Humans communicate with dogs by using vocalization, hand signals, and body posture. As dogs, with their acute sense of hearing, they rely on the auditory aspect of communication for understanding and responding to various cues, including the distinctive
barking patterns that convey different messages. A study using
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has shown that dogs respond to both vocal and nonvocal voices using the brain's region towards the
temporal pole, similar to that of humans' brains. Most dogs also looked significantly longer at the face whose expression matched the
valence of vocalization.[115][116][117] A study of
caudate responses shows that dogs tend to respond more positively to social rewards than to food rewards.[118]
Ecology
Population
The dog is probably the most widely abundant large
carnivoran living in the human environment.[119][120] In 2013, the estimated global dog population was between 700 million[121] and 987 million.[122] About 20% of dogs live as pets in
developed countries.[123] In the
developing world, it is estimated that three-quarters of the world's dog population lives in the developing world as
feral,
village, or community dogs.[124] Most of these dogs live as
scavengers and have never been owned by humans, with one study showing that village dogs' most common response when approached by strangers is to run away (52%), or respond aggressively (11%).[125]
Competitors and predators
Feral and
free-ranging dogs' potential to compete with other large carnivores is limited by their strong association with humans.[119] Although wolves are known to kill dogs, they tend to live in pairs in areas where they are highly persecuted, giving them a disadvantage when facing large dog groups.[126][127] In some instances, wolves have displayed an uncharacteristic fearlessness of humans and buildings when attacking dogs, to the extent that they have to be beaten off or killed.[128] Although the numbers of dogs killed each year are relatively low, it induces a fear of wolves entering villages and farmyards to take dogs, and losses of dogs to wolves have led to demands for more liberal wolf hunting regulations.[126]
Coyotes and
big cats have also been known to attack dogs. In particular,
leopards are known to have a preference for dogs and have been recorded to kill and consume them, no matter their size.[129]Siberian tigers in the
Amur River region have killed dogs in the middle of villages. Amur tigers will not tolerate wolves as competitors within their territories, and the tigers could be considering dogs in the same way.[130]Striped hyenas are known to kill dogs in their range.[131]
Domestic dogs inherited complex behaviors, such as
bite inhibition, from their wolf ancestors, who would have been
pack hunters with complex body language. These sophisticated forms of social cognition and communication may account for their trainability, playfulness and ability to fit into human households and social situations,[148] probably also for early human hunter-gatherers.
The keeping of dogs as companions, particularly by elites, has a long history.[151] Pet dog populations grew significantly after
World War II as
suburbanization increased.[151] In the 1980s, there have been changes in the pet dog's role, such as the increased role of dogs in the
emotional support of their human guardians.[152][page needed][153][page needed][154] Within the second half of the 20th century, the first dogs' social status major shift has been "
commodification", shaping it to conform to social expectations of personality and behavior.[154] The second has been the broadening of the family's concept and the home to include dogs-as-dogs within everyday routines and practices.[154]
A vast range of commodity forms aim to transform a pet dog into an ideal companion.[155] The list of goods and services available for dogs, such as dog training books, classes, and television programs, has increased.[156][155] The majority of contemporary dog owners describe their pet as part of the family, although some state that it is an ambivalent relationship.[154] Some dog trainers, such as on the television program Dog Whisperer, have promoted a
dominance model of dog-human relationships. However, the idea of the "
alpha dog" trying to be dominant is based on a controversial theory about wolf packs.[157][158] It has been disputed that "trying to achieve status" is characteristic of dog-human interactions.[159] Activities in which the dog is an integral partner, such as
dog dancing and
dog yoga, have increased in participation by human family members.[155]
According to statistics published by the
American Pet Products Manufacturers Association in the National Pet Owner Survey in 2009–2010, an estimated 77.5 million people in the United States have pet dogs.[160] The source shows that nearly 40% of American households own at least one dog, of which 67% own just one dog, 25% own two dogs, and nearly 9% own more than two dogs. The data also shows an equal number of male and female pet dogs, and less than one-fifth of the owned dogs come from
shelters.[161]
Various kinds of
service dogs and
assistance dogs, including
guide dogs,
hearing dogs,
mobility assistance dogs, and
psychiatric service dogs, assist individuals with disabilities.[167][168] A study of 29 dogs reported that 9 dogs owned by people with epilepsy were reported to exhibit attention-getting behavior to their handler 30 seconds to 45 minutes prior to an impending seizure; there was no significant correlation between the patients' demographics, health, or attitude towards their pets.[169]
There are breed-conformation shows or
sports, including
racing,
sledding and
agility competitions, for dogs to participate in with their guardians. In dog shows, also referred to as breed shows, a judge familiar with the specific dog breed evaluates individual purebred dogs for conformity with their established breed type as described in the
breed standard.[170]Weight pulling, a dog sport involving pulling weight, has been criticized for promoting
doping and for its risk of injury.[171]
Eating dog meat is a
social taboo in most parts of the world; debates have ensued over banning the consumption of dog meat.[185] The
Sui emperors attempted to outlaw dog meat consumption, with the
Tang dynasty partially prohibiting dog meat consumption at events.[186] Proponents of eating dog meat have argued that placing a distinction between livestock and dogs is
Western hypocrisy and that there is no difference in eating different animals' meat.[187][188][189][190] In some countries,
saling or slaughtering dogs for human consumption is prohibited, though some still consume it in
modern times.
The most popular Korean dog dish is called bosintang, a spicy stew meant to balance the body's heat during the summer months. Some followers of the custom claim this is done to ensure good health by balancing one's
gi, or the body's 'vital energy'. Dogs are not as widely consumed as beef, pork and chicken.[191]
The primary dog breed raised for meat in South Korea is the
Nureongi, an unrecognized breed by international body.[192] In 2018, the
South Korean government passed a bill for restaurants that sell dog meat to stop doing so during the year's
Winter Olympics.[193] On 9 January 2024, the
South Korean parliament passed a law banning the distribution and sale of dog meat, to take effect in three years.[194]
In 2018, the
World Health Organization (WHO) reported that 59,000 people died globally from
rabies, with 59.6% in Asia and 36.4% in Africa. Rabies is a disease for which dogs are the most significant vector.[195] Dog bites affect tens of millions of people globally each year. Children in mid-to-late childhood are the largest percentage bitten by dogs, with a greater risk of injury to the head and neck. They are more likely to need medical treatment and have the highest death rate.[196] Sharp claws can lacerate flesh, which can lead to serious infections.[197]In the United States, cats and dogs are a factor in more than 86,000 falls each year.[198] It has been estimated that around 2% of dog-related injuries treated in U.K. hospitals are domestic accidents. The same study concluded that dog-associated
road accidents involving injuries are more commonly involving
two-wheeled vehicles.[199]
Toxocara canis (dog
roundworm) eggs in dog feces can cause
toxocariasis. In the United States, about 10,000 cases of Toxocara infection are reported in humans each year, and almost 14% of the U.S. population is infected.[200] Untreated toxocariasis can cause retinal damage and decreased vision.[201] Dog feces can also contain
hookworms that cause
cutaneous larva migrans in humans.[202][203]
Health benefits
The scientific evidence is mixed as to whether a dog's companionship can enhance human physical and psychological well-being.[204] Studies suggest that there are benefits to physical health and psychological well-being, but they have been criticized for being 'poorly controlled'.[205][206] It states that "the health of elderly people is related to their health habits and
social supports but not to their ownership of, or attachment to, a companion animal." Earlier studies have shown that pet dog or cat guardians make fewer hospital visits and are less likely to be on medication for heart problems and sleeping difficulties than non-guardians.[207] People with pet dogs took considerably more physical exercise than those with cats and those without pets; these effects are relatively long-term.[208] Pet guardianship has also been associated with increased
coronary artery disease survival. Human guardians are significantly less likely to die within one year of an acute
myocardial infarction than those who do not own dogs.[209] Studies have found a small to moderate correlation between dog ownership and increased adult physical activity levels.[210]
A 2005 paper states, "recent research has failed to support earlier findings that pet ownership is associated with a reduced risk of
cardiovascular disease, a reduced use of
general practitioner services, or any psychological or physical benefits on health for community dwelling older people. Research has, however, pointed to significantly less absenteeism from school through sickness among children who live with pets."[204] In one study, new guardians reported a significant reduction in minor health problems during the first month following pet acquisition, which was sustained through the 10-month study.[208]
The health benefits of dogs can result from contact with dogs in general, not solely from having dogs as pets. For example, when in a pet dog's presence, people show reductions in cardiovascular, behavioral, and psychological indicators of anxiety,[211] and are exposed to immune-stimulating microorganisms, which can protect against allergies and autoimmune diseases according to the
hygiene hypothesis. Other benefits include dogs as social support.[212] One study indicated that wheelchair users experience more positive social interactions with strangers when accompanied by a dog than when they are not.[213] In 2015, a study found that pet owners were significantly more likely to get to know people in their neighborhood than non-pet owners.[214]
Using dogs and other animals as a part of therapy dates back to the late 18th century, when animals were introduced into mental institutions to help socialize patients with
mental disorders.[215] Animal-assisted intervention research has shown that animal-assisted therapy with a dog can increase smiling and laughing among people with
Alzheimer's disease.[216] One study demonstrated that children with ADHD and
conduct disorders who participated in an education program with dogs and other animals showed increased attendance, knowledge, and skill objectives and decreased
antisocial and
violent behavior compared with those not in an animal-assisted program.[217]
In
Christianity, dogs represent faithfulness.[220] Within the
Roman Catholic denomination specifically, the iconography of
Saint Dominic includes a dog, after the saint's mother dreamt of a dog springing from her womb and becoming pregnant shortly after that.[226] As such, the
Dominican Order (
Ecclesiastical Latin: Domini canis) means "dog of the Lord" or "hound of the Lord" (Ecclesiastical Latin: Domini canis).[226] In Christian folklore, a
church grim often takes the form of a black dog to guard Christian churches and their
churchyards from
sacrilege.[227]Jewish law does not prohibit keeping dogs and other pets. Jewish law requires Jews to feed dogs (and other animals that they own) before themselves and make arrangements for feeding them before obtaining them.[228][229] The view on dogs in
Islam is mixed, with some schools of thought viewing them as unclean,[220] although
Khaled Abou El Fadl states that this view is based on "pre-Islamic Arab mythology" and "a tradition to be falsely attributed to the Prophet."[230] The Sunni Maliki School jurists disagree with the idea that dogs are unclean.[231]
Terminology
Dog – the species (or subspecies) as a whole, also any male member of the same.[232]
Bitch – any female member of the species (or subspecies).[233]
Puppy or pup – a young member of the species (or subspecies) under 12 months old.[234]
^
abcThalmann O, Perri AR (2018). "Paleogenomic Inferences of Dog Domestication". In Lindqvist C, Rajora O (eds.). Paleogenomics. Population Genomics. Springer, Cham. pp. 273–306.
doi:
10.1007/13836_2018_27.
ISBN978-3-030-04752-8.
^
abAxelsson E, Ratnakumar A, Arendt ML, Maqbool K, Webster MT, Perloski M, et al. (March 2013). "The genomic signature of dog domestication reveals adaptation to a starch-rich diet". Nature. 495 (7441): 360–364.
Bibcode:
2013Natur.495..360A.
doi:
10.1038/nature11837.
PMID23354050.
S2CID4415412.
^Ciucci P, Lucchini V, Boitani L, Randi E (December 2003). "Dewclaws in wolves as evidence of admixed ancestry with dogs". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 81 (12): 2077–2081.
doi:
10.1139/z03-183.
^Murphy L, Coleman A (2012). "Xylitol Toxicosis in Dogs". Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice. 42 (#2): 307–312.
doi:
10.1016/j.cvsm.2011.12.003.
PMID22381181.
^Eichelberg H, Seine R (August 1996). "Lebenserwartung und Todesursachen bei Hunden - I. Zur Situation bei Mischlingen und verschiedenen Rassen" [Life expectancy and cause of death in dogs. I. The situation in mixed breeds and various dog breeds]. Berliner und Munchener Tierarztliche Wochenschrift (in German). 109 (8): 292–303.
PMID9005839.
^Nelson RW, Reusch CE (September 2014). "ANIMAL MODELS OF DISEASE: Classification and etiology of diabetes in dogs and cats". Journal of Endocrinology. 222 (3): T1–T9.
doi:
10.1530/JOE-14-0202.
PMID24982466.
^"Pets by the numbers". The Humane Society of the United States.
Archived from the original on 22 February 2021. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
^Mahlow JC (1999). "Estimation of the proportions of dogs and cats that are surgically sterilized". Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 215 (#5): 640–643.
doi:
10.2460/javma.1999.215.05.640.
PMID10476708. Although the cause of pet overpopulation is multifaceted, the relative lack of owners choosing to spay or neuter their animals is a major contributing factor.
^Heidenberger E, Unshelm J (February 1990). "Verhaltensänderungen von Hunden nach Kastration" [Changes in the behavior of dogs after castration]. Tierarztliche Praxis (in German). 18 (1): 69–75.
PMID2326799.
^Morrison, Wallace B. (1998). Cancer in Dogs and Cats (1st ed.). Williams and Wilkins. p. 583.
ISBN978-0-683-06105-5.
^Arnold S (1997). "Harninkontinenz bei kastrierten Hündinnen. Teil 1: Bedeutung, Klinik und Ätiopathogenese" [Urinary incontinence in castrated bitches. Part 1: Significance, clinical aspects and etiopathogenesis]. Schweizer Archiv Fur Tierheilkunde (in German). 139 (6): 271–276.
PMID9411733.
^Johnston S, Kamolpatana K, Root-Kustritz M, Johnston G (July 2000). "Prostatic disorders in the dog". Animal Reproduction Science. 60–61: 405–415.
doi:
10.1016/s0378-4320(00)00101-9.
PMID10844211.
^Leroy G (2011). "Genetic diversity, inbreeding and breeding practices in dogs: results from pedigree analyses". Vet. J. 189 (2): 177–182.
doi:
10.1016/j.tvjl.2011.06.016.
PMID21737321.
^Bernstein H, Hopf FA, Michod RE (1987). "The Molecular Basis of the Evolution of Sex". Molecular Genetics of Development. Advances in Genetics. Vol. 24 (published 2 March 2008). pp. 323–370.
doi:
10.1016/S0065-2660(08)60012-7.
ISBN978-0-12-017624-3.
PMID3324702.
^Gresky C, Hamann H, Distl O (2005). "Einfluss von Inzucht auf die Wurfgröße und den Anteil tot geborener Welpen beim Dackel" [Influence of inbreeding on litter size and the proportion of stillborn puppies in dachshunds]. Berliner und Munchener Tierarztliche Wochenschrift (in German). 118 (3–4): 134–139.
PMID15803761.
^van der Beek S, Nielen AL, Schukken YH, Brascamp EW (September 1999). "Evaluation of genetic, common-litter, and within-litter effects on preweaning mortality in a birth cohort of puppies". American Journal of Veterinary Research. 60 (9): 1106–1110.
doi:
10.2460/ajvr.1999.60.09.1106.
PMID10490080.
^Almada RC, Coimbra NC (June 2015). "Recruitment of striatonigral disinhibitory and nigrotectal inhibitory GABAergic pathways during the organization of defensive behavior by mice in a dangerous environment with the venomous snake Bothrops alternatus (Reptilia, Viperidae)". Synapse. 69 (6): 299–313.
doi:
10.1002/syn.21814.
PMID25727065.
^Coppinger R, Schneider R: Evolution of working dogs. The domestic dog: Its evolution, behaviour and interactions with people. Cambridge: Cambridge University press, 1995.
^Nganvongpanit K, Yano T (September 2012). "Side Effects in 412 Dogs from Swimming in a Chlorinated Swimming Pool". The Thai Journal of Veterinary Medicine. 42 (3): 281–286.
doi:
10.56808/2985-1130.2398.
^
abYoung JK, Olson KA, Reading RP, Amgalanbaatar S, Berger J (February 2011). "Is Wildlife Going to the Dogs? Impacts of Feral and Free-roaming Dogs on Wildlife Populations". BioScience. 61 (2): 125–132.
doi:
10.1525/bio.2011.61.2.7.
^Daniels TJ, Bekoff M (27 November 1989). "Population and Social Biology of Free-Ranging Dogs, Canis familiaris". Journal of Mammalogy. 70 (4): 754–762.
doi:
10.2307/1381709.
JSTOR1381709.
^Lord K, Feinstein M, Smith B, Coppinger R (2013). "Variation in reproductive traits of members of the genus Canis with special attention to the domestic dog (Canis familiaris)". Behavioural Processes. 92: 131–142.
doi:
10.1016/j.beproc.2012.10.009.
PMID23124015.
S2CID9748685.
^Kojola I, Ronkainen S, Hakala A, Heikkinen S, Kokko S (2004). "Interactions between wolves Canis lupus and dogs C. familiaris in Finland". Wildlife Biology. 10 (2): 101–105.
doi:
10.2981/wlb.2004.014.
S2CID85973414.
^Scott, Jonathan, Scott, Angela (2006). Big Cat Diary: Leopard. London: Collins. p. 108.
ISBN978-0-00-721181-4.
^Fascetti AJ, Delaney SJ, eds. (2012).
"7". Applied Veterinary Clinical Nutrition (1st ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. p. 76.
ISBN978-0-8138-0657-0.
Archived from the original on 14 March 2024. Retrieved 4 March 2019.
^
abUrban M (1961). Die Haustiere der Polynesier. Göttingen: Häntzschel.
^
abMatisoo-Smith E (February 2015). "Ancient DNA and the human settlement of the Pacific: A review". Journal of Human Evolution. 79: 93–104.
doi:
10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.10.017.
PMID25556846.
^Haraway D (2003). The Companion Species manifesto: Dogs, People and Significant Otherness. Chicago: Prickly Paradigm Press.
ISBN978-0-9717575-8-5.
^
abcdPower E (August 2008). "Furry families: making a human–dog family through home". Social & Cultural Geography. 9 (5): 535–555.
doi:
10.1080/14649360802217790.
^Bradshaw JW, Blackwell EJ, Casey RA (May 2009). "Dominance in domestic dogs—useful construct or bad habit?". Journal of Veterinary Behavior. 4 (3): 135–144.
doi:
10.1016/j.jveb.2008.08.004.
^Audrestch HM, Whelan CT, Grice D, Asher L, England GC, Freeman SL (October 2015). "Recognizing the value of assistance dogs in society". Disability and Health Journal. 8 (4): 469–474.
doi:
10.1016/j.dhjo.2015.07.001.
PMID26364936.
^"Injury Prevention Bulletin"(PDF). Northwest Territories Health and Social Services. 25 March 2009. Archived from
the original(PDF) on 22 March 2011. Retrieved 7 January 2010.
^Talaizadeh AH, Maraghi S, Jelowdar A, Peyvasteh M (October–December 2007).
"Human toxocariasis: A report of 3 cases". Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences Quarterly. 23 (#5). Part I.
Archived from the original on 22 September 2009. Retrieved 28 June 2009.
^Winefield HR, Black A, Chur-Hansen A (2008). "Health effects of ownership of and attachment to companion animals in an older population". International Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 15 (4): 303–310.
doi:
10.1080/10705500802365532.
PMID19005930.
S2CID30808366.
^Podberscek A (2006). "Positive and Negative Aspects of Our Relationship with Companion Animals". Veterinary Research Communications. 30 (1): 21–27.
doi:
10.1007/s11259-006-0005-0.
S2CID43327044.
^Headey B. (1999). "Health benefits and health cost savings due to pets: preliminary estimates from an Australian national survey". Social Indicators Research. 47 (2): 233–243.
doi:
10.1023/A:1006892908532.
S2CID142618092.
^Friedmann E, Thomas SA (1995). "Pet ownership, social support, and one-year survival after acute myocardial infarction in the Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST)". The American Journal of Cardiology. 76 (17): 1213–1217.
doi:
10.1016/S0002-9149(99)80343-9.
PMID7502998.
^McNicholas J, Collis GM (2006). "Animals as social supports: Insights for understanding animal assisted therapy". In Fine, Aubrey H. (ed.). Handbook on animal-assisted therapy: theoretical foundations and guidelines for practice. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press. pp. 49–71.
ISBN978-0-12-369484-3.
^Kruger, K.A. & Serpell, J.A. (2006). Animal-assisted interventions in mental health: Definitions and theoretical foundations, In Fine, A.H. (ed.), Handbook on animal-assisted therapy: Theoretical foundations and guidelines for practice. San Diego, CA, Academic Press: 21–38.
ISBN978-0-12-369484-3
^Batson, K., McCabe, B., Baun, M.M., Wilson, C. (1998). "The effect of a therapy dog on socialization and psychological indicators of stress in persons diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease". In Turner, Dennis C., Wilson, Cindy C. (eds.). Companion animals in human health. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. pp. 203–215.
ISBN978-0-7619-1061-9.
^Katcher, A.H., Wilkins, G.G. (2006). "The Centaur's Lessons: Therapeutic education through care of animals and nature study". In Fine, Aubrey H. (ed.). Handbook on animal-assisted therapy: theoretical foundations and guidelines for practice. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press. pp. 153–177.
ISBN978-0-12-369484-3.
^Khaled Abou El Fadl (2004).
"Dogs in the Islamic Tradition and Nature". Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature. New York: Scholar of the House.
Archived from the original on 2 February 2021. Retrieved 19 November 2022.
^
abcdefAlderton D (1987). The dog: the most complete, illustrated, practical guide to dogs and their world. London: New Burlington Books. pp. 200–203.
ISBN978-0-948872-13-6.
Coppinger R, Schneider R (1995). "Evolution of working dogs". In Serpell J (ed.). The domestic dog: its evolution, behaviour, and interactions with people. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN978-0-521-42537-7.
Cunliffe J (2004). The encyclopedia of dog breeds. Bath: Paragon Books.
ISBN978-0-7525-8018-0.