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For overview of democracy indices, see Democracy indices.
Democracies and dictatorships in 2008 [1]
Democracies and dictatorships in 1988 [1]

Democracy-Dictatorship (DD), [1] index of democracy and dictatorship [2] or simply the DD index [3] or the DD datasets was the binary measure of democracy and dictatorship first proposed by Adam Przeworski et al. (2010), and further developed and maintained by Cheibub, Gandhi, and Vreeland (2009). [4] Note that the most recent dataset was updated 2008.

Based on the regime binary classification idea proposed by Alvarez in 1996, [5] and the Democracy and Development (or DD measure, ACLP dataset) proposed by Przeworski et al. (2010), Cheibub, Gandhi, and Vreeland developed a six-fold regime classification scheme, resulting what the authors called as the DD datasets. [1]: 68 

The DD dataset covers the annual data points of 199 countries from 1946 (or date of independence) to 2008. [1]: 68  The figures at the left show the results in 1988 and 2008.

Six-fold regime classification scheme and its rules

The DD index first classifies the regimes into two types: democracies and dictatorships. For democracies, it categorizes them into three types: parliamentary, semi-presidential and presidential democracies. For dictatorships, monarchic, military and civilian dictatorship. [1] " Based on a "minimalist" theory of democracy, the index relies on rules regarding the existence of competitive elections. [1] [3] Resorting to democratic concepts by Karl Popper and Joseph Schumpeter, Przeworski defended the minimalist approach, citing Popper that "the only system in which citizens can get rid of governments without bloodshed." [6]

Four rules

For a regime to be considered as a democracy by the DD scheme, it must meet the requirement of four rules below: [1]: 69  [3]

  1. The chief executive must be chosen by popular election or by a body that was itself popularly elected.
  2. The legislature must be popularly elected.
  3. There must be more than one party competing in the elections.
  4. An alternation in power under electoral rules identical to the ones that brought the incumbent to office must have taken place.

Some regimes may meet the first three rules, but lack an alternation in power in its historical past; these regimes are classified as dictatorships because of cases where the incumbent only allows elections as long as they keep winning, and would refuse to step down if they lost. However, since they might also give up power willingly, the regime is marked with a type II value to signal potential classification errors where a democratic regime may be falsely classified as dictatorship. [1]: 70 . This does not indicate cases of semi-democracy or semi-dictatorship. [1]: 71 . The authors acknowledged that the last rule is more complicated to implement, but stated that it helps researchers to control potential errors and removes subjective judgement from the classification. [1]: 70 

Countries

The Democracy-Dictatorship Index has the main regime types of "democracy" and "dictatorship" and three sub-types for each as well. Democracies can be either parliamentary, semi-presidential, or presidential and dictatorships can be civilian, military, or royal. Many countries which are seen as otherwise democratic are dictatorships because there has yet to be an alternation in power since their incumbent government has never lost an election. Therefore, it is impossible to know if the regime is a democracy or a dictatorship, so DD Index considers them dictatorships until an alternation in power occurs.

Countries by regime type (2008) [7][ needs update]
Regime Type Subtype Reason for Dictatorship [7]
  Afghanistan Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Albania Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Algeria Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Andorra Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Angola Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 1. Executive not elected
  Antigua and Barbuda Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Argentina Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Armenia Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  Australia Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Austria Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  Azerbaijan Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Bahamas Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Bahrain Dictatorship Royal Dictatorship 1. Executive not elected
2. No parties
  Bangladesh Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 1. Executive not elected
2. No Legislature
3. No legislative parties
  Barbados Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Belarus Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Belgium Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Belize Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Benin Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Bhutan Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Bolivia Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Bosnia and Herzegovina Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 1. Executive not elected
  Botswana Dictatorship Military Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Brazil Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Brunei Dictatorship Royal Dictatorship 1. Executive not elected
2. Legislature not elected
3. One party
  Bulgaria Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  Burkina Faso Dictatorship Military Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Burundi Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Cambodia Dictatorship Royal Dictatorship 1. Executive not elected
3. No legislative parties
  Cameroon Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Canada Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Cape Verde Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  Central African Republic Dictatorship Military Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Chad Dictatorship Military Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Chile Democracy Presidential Democracy
  China Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 3. All parties are in regime
  Colombia Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Comoros Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Congo Dictatorship Military Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Costa Rica Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Ivory Coast Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship
  Croatia Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  Cuba Dictatorship Military Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Cyprus Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Czech Republic Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  DR Congo Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Denmark Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Djibouti Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 3. One legislative party
  Dominica Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Dominican Republic Democracy Presidential Democracy
  East Timor Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  Ecuador Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Egypt Dictatorship Military Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  El Salvador Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Equatorial Guinea Dictatorship Military Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Eritrea Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 1. Executive not elected
2. Legislature not elected
3. All parties banned
4. No alternation in power
  Estonia Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Ethiopia Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 3. All parties are in regime
4. No alternation in power
  Fiji Dictatorship Military Dictatorship 1. Executive not elected
2. No Legislature
3. No Legislative parties
  Finland Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  France Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  Gabon Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Gambia Dictatorship Military Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Georgia Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  Germany Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Ghana Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Greece Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Grenada Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Guatemala Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Guinea Dictatorship Military Dictatorship 1. Executive not elected
  Guinea-Bissau Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  Guyana Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Haiti Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Honduras Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Hungary Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Iceland Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  India Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Indonesia Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Iran Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship
  Iraq Dictatorship Military Dictatorship All parties in regime
  Ireland Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  Israel Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Italy Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Jamaica Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Japan Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Jordan Dictatorship Royal Dictatorship 1. Executive not elected
  Kazakhstan Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Kenya Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Kiribati Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Kuwait Dictatorship Royal Dictatorship 1. Executive not elected
3. All parties legally banned
  Kyrgyzstan Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  Laos Dictatorship Military Dictatorship 3. Legally single party state
  Latvia Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Lebanon Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Lesotho Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Liberia Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Libya Dictatorship Military Dictatorship 1. Executive not elected
2. Legislature is appointed
3. No parties
  Liechtenstein Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Lithuania Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  Luxembourg Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Macedonia Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  Madagascar Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  Malawi Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Malaysia Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 3. All parties in regime
4. No alternation in power
  Maldives Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Mali Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  Malta Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Marshall Islands Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Mauritania Dictatorship Military Dictatorship 1. Executive not elected
2. No Legislature
3. No Legislative parties
  Mauritius Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Mexico Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Micronesia Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Moldova Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Mongolia Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  Montenegro Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship[ clarification needed] 4. No alternation in power
  Morocco Dictatorship Royal Dictatorship 1. Executive not elected
  Mozambique Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Myanmar Dictatorship Military Dictatorship 1. Executive not elected
2. No Legislature
3. No Legislative parties
  Namibia Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Nauru Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
    Nepal Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Netherlands Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  New Zealand Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Nicaragua Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Niger Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  Nigeria Democracy Presidential Democracy
  North Korea Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 1. Executive not elected
  Norway Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Oman Dictatorship Royal Dictatorship 1. Executive not elected
2. Legislature is closed
3. No Legislative parties
  Pakistan Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Palau Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Panama Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Papua New Guinea Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Paraguay Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Peru Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Philippines Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Poland Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  Portugal Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  Qatar Dictatorship Royal Dictatorship 1. Executive not elected
2. Legislature not elected
3. No Legislative parties
  Romania Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  Russia Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Rwanda Dictatorship Military Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Samoa Dictatorship Royal Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  San Marino Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  São Tomé and Príncipe Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  Saudi Arabia Dictatorship Royal Dictatorship 1. Executive not elected
2. Legislature not elected
3. No Legislative parties
  Senegal Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  Serbia Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  Seychelles Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Sierra Leone Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Singapore Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Slovakia Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  Slovenia Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Solomon Islands Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Somalia Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 2. Legislature not elected
3. No Legislative parties
  South Africa Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  South Korea Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Spain Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Sri Lanka Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Saint Kitts and Nevis Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Saint Lucia Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Sudan Dictatorship Military Dictatorship 1. Executive not elected
2. Legislature not elected
  Suriname Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Swaziland Dictatorship Royal Dictatorship 1. Executive not elected
3. Legally single party state
  Sweden Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
   Switzerland Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Syria Dictatorship Military Dictatorship 3. All parties in regime
  Taiwan Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  Tajikistan Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Tanzania Dictatorship Military Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Thailand Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Togo Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Tonga Dictatorship Royal Dictatorship 1. Executive not elected
2. Legislature not elected
3. All parties legally banned
4. No alternation in power
  Trinidad and Tobago Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Tunisia Dictatorship Military Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Turkey Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Turkmenistan Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 3. Legally one party state
  Tuvalu Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Uganda Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Ukraine Democracy Semi-Presidential Democracy
  United Arab Emirates Dictatorship Royal Dictatorship 1. Executive not elected
2. No Legislature
3. No Legislative parties
  United Kingdom Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  United States Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Uruguay Democracy Presidential Democracy
  Uzbekistan Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 3. One party
4. No alternation in power
  Vanuatu Democracy Parliamentary Democracy
  Venezuela Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 1. Executive not elected

4. No alternation in power

  Vietnam Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 1. Executive not elected
3. One party
  Yemen Dictatorship Military Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Zambia Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power
  Zimbabwe Dictatorship Civilian Dictatorship 4. No alternation in power

Democracy classification

A flowchart for the classification of democracies. Note that the official names do not determine their classification.

Democracies are classified by the rules in which executives can be appointed or removed and can be either presidential, mixed or semi-presidential, or parliamentary. [1] [8]: 454  It is important to note that these names do not have to correspond to the official or colloquial titles of any of the countries offices. For example, DD could classify a country which has a legislative assembly whose official name is "the parliament" but still classify it in any of the three categories. The classification depends on the rules outlining the relationship between a country's government, legislative assembly (often called the legislature), and head of state. [8]: 454  The government composes the chief executive and the heads of the executive departments. The chief executive can take many titles including chancellor, prime minister, or premier and the heads of the executive departments can bear different titles and be called different things. In the United Kingdom, for example, the chief executive is the prime minister, and the ministers are the heads of the executive departments, which together compose the government.

Legislative responsibility

The first distinction made is whether a country has a government has legislative responsibility, i.e. whether a majority vote in the legislature can remove the sitting government without cause. The required majority needed to remove the sitting government varies between countries but is termed a vote of no confidence. [8]: 455  Some countries (such as Spain, Belgium, Germany, and Israel) require that the vote of no confidence also specify who is going to replace the sitting government to minimize the time without an interim government, essentially replacing one government with another. This type of vote is termed a constructive vote of no confidence. [8]: 455  Sometimes sitting governments will attach a vote of no confidence clause to a piece of legislation they want passed, effectively tying the survival of the government on the piece of legislation. [8]: 456 

Head of state

The second distinction made is whether the head of state is popularly elected for a fixed term. The head of state may be unelected and still be classified as a democracy. [1] Popularly elected means that the head of state is directly elected by the citizens or elected by an assembly which then elects them (an example being the electoral college in the United States). In Germany, the head of state is elected by regional legislatures and not popularly elected. [8]: 457  Elected heads of state are usually referred to as "president." The phrase "fixed term" indicates the once the head of state is chosen, they serve a known and a limited number of years before another election is held, and they cannot be removed from the office in the meantime via a vote of no confidence. [8]: 456 

The head of state in most parliamentary democracies formally appoint the head of government. [8]: 465  Some countries, such as Greece and Bulgaria, stipulate who the head of state chooses as head of government. In the former, for example, the President must appoint as Prime Minister the leader of the largest party in parliament, who has three days to gain the confidence of a majority thereof.

Some countries, such as Sweden, instead charge another person entirely with choosing the head of government, such as the presiding officer of the legislative assembly.

Classification

The first distinction made is whether a democracy's government is responsible to the legislature. If it is not responsible, it is a presidential democracy. If it is, then a further distinction is made between democracies where the head of state is popularly elected and those where the head of state is not popularly elected. If the head of state is popularly elected for a fixed term then, the democracy is mixed or semi-presidential. If the head of state serves for life or is not popularly elected or a fixed term, then the democracy is parliamentary. [1]

The table below offers a full list of which countries are what type of democracy. Keep note that the head of state, chief executive, government, and legislatures can have their official names be seemingly contradictory to this classification. The name a democracy gives itself or its office does not indicate what type of democracy it is.

Definitions

A presidential democracy has a government that does not need the majority support of a legislature to stay in power. A semi-presidential (mixed) democracy has a government that needs the majority of support from a legislature to exist and whose head of state is popularly elected for a fixed term. Parliamentary democracy is the same as semi-presidential but has heads of state which are not popularly elected for a fixed term, typically either monarchs or officials not chosen by popular elections. [8]: 457 

Comparison with other democracy-measuring data sets

The DD dataset is limited to 199 countries after 1946, whereas Boix, Miller, & Rosato, 2013 proposed a data set from 1800 to 2007, covering 219 countries. The 2010 version of Polity data series covers 189 countries from 1800 to 2009. [9]

Gugiu & Centellas developed the Democracy Cluster Classification Index that integrates five democracy indicators (including the DD dataset, Polity dataset), clustering 24 American and 39 European regimes over 30 years. [2]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Cheibub, José Antonio; Gandhi, Jennifer; Vreeland, James Raymond (April 2010). "Democracy and dictatorship revisited". Public Choice. 143 (1–2): 67–101. doi: 10.1007/s11127-009-9491-2. JSTOR  40661005. S2CID  45234838.
  2. ^ a b Ristei, Mihaiela; Centellas, Miguel (Summer 2013). "The Democracy Cluster Classification Index". Political Analysis. 21 (3): 334–349. doi: 10.1093/pan/mpt004.
  3. ^ a b c Keech, William R. (14 October 2013). Economic Politics in the United States. Cambridge University Press. pp. 17–. ISBN  978-1-107-00414-6. Retrieved 24 March 2014. Specifically, the DD index (for Democracy and Dictatorship) assesses the United States as a democracy from 1946, the first measured, through 2008, the last year of measurement. ... My definition of a democracy is minimalist, like the DD definition of Cheibub, Gadhi, and Vreeland (2010), but it adds a dimension. Like DD, it considers the presence of contested elections a necessary condition of ....
  4. ^ Haggard, Stephan; Kaufman, Robert R. (August 2012). "Inequality and regime change: democratic transitions and the stability of democratic rule". American Political Science Review. 106 (3): 495–516. doi: 10.1017/S0003055412000287. S2CID  28273700.
  5. ^ Alvarez, M.; Cheibub, J. A.; Limongi, F.; Przeworski, A. (1996). "Classifying political regimes". Studies in Comparative International Development. 31 (2): 3–36. doi: 10.1007/bf02719326. S2CID  154376266.
  6. ^ Przeworski, Adam (2003). "Minimalist Conception of Democracy: A Defense". In Robert Alan Dahl, Ian Shapiro& José Antônio Cheibub (ed.). The Democracy Sourcebook. MIT Press. p. 12. ISBN  978-0-262-54147-3. Retrieved 24 March 2014.
  7. ^ a b "DD - José Antonio Cheibub". sites.google.com. Retrieved 2022-09-05.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i Clark, Robert Williams; Golder, Matt; Golder, Nadenichek (2018). Principles of Comparative Politics (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications. pp. 454–467. ISBN  978-1506318127.
  9. ^ Boix, Carles; Miller, Michael; Rosato, Sebastian (December 2013). "A complete data set of political regimes, 1800–2007". Comparative Political Studies. 46 (12): 1523–1554. doi: 10.1177/0010414012463905. S2CID  45833659.

External links

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