Frozen water is found on the
Earth’s surface primarily as
snow cover,
freshwater ice in
lakes and
rivers,
sea ice,
glaciers,
ice sheets, and frozen ground and
permafrost (permanently frozen ground). The residence time of water in each of these cryospheric sub-systems varies widely. Snow cover and freshwater ice are essentially seasonal, and most sea ice, except for ice in the central
Arctic, lasts only a few years if it is not seasonal. A given water particle in glaciers, ice sheets, or ground ice, however, may remain frozen for 10–100,000 years or longer, and deep ice in parts of
East Antarctica may have an age approaching 1 million years.[citation needed]
Most of the world's ice volume is in
Antarctica, principally in the
East Antarctic Ice Sheet. In terms of areal extent, however,
Northern Hemisphere winter snow and ice extent comprise the largest area, amounting to an average 23% of hemispheric surface area in January. The large areal extent and the important climatic roles of snow and
ice is related to their unique physical properties. This also indicates that the ability to observe and model snow and ice-cover extent, thickness, and
physical properties (radiative and thermal properties) is of particular significance for
climate research.[citation needed]
There are several fundamental physical properties of snow and ice that modulate energy exchanges between the surface and the
atmosphere. The most important properties are the surface reflectance (
albedo), the ability to transfer heat (thermal diffusivity), and the ability to change state (
latent heat). These physical properties, together with surface roughness,
emissivity, and
dielectric characteristics, have important implications for observing snow and ice from space. For example, surface roughness is often the dominant factor determining the strength of
radarbackscatter.[5] Physical properties such as
crystal structure, density, length, and liquid water content are important factors affecting the transfers of heat and water and the scattering of
microwaveenergy.
The surface reflectance of incoming
solar radiation is important for the surface energy balance (SEB). It is the ratio of reflected to incident solar radiation, commonly referred to as
albedo. Climatologists are primarily interested in albedo integrated over the
shortwave portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum (~300 to 3500 nm), which coincides with the main solar energy input. Typically, albedo values for non-melting snow-covered surfaces are high (~80–90%) except in the case of forests.[citation needed] The higher albedos for snow and ice cause rapid shifts in surface
reflectivity in autumn and spring in high latitudes, but the overall climatic significance of this increase is spatially and temporally modulated by
cloud cover. (Planetary albedo is determined principally by cloud cover, and by the small amount of total solar radiation received in high
latitudes during winter months.) Summer and autumn are times of high-average cloudiness over the
Arctic Ocean so the albedo
feedback associated with the large seasonal changes in sea-ice extent is greatly reduced. It was found that snow cover exhibited the greatest influence on
Earth's radiative balance in the spring (April to May) period when incoming
solar radiation was greatest over snow-covered areas.[6]
The
thermal properties of cryospheric elements also have important climatic consequences.[citation needed] Snow and ice have much lower thermal diffusivities than
air.
Thermal diffusivity is a measure of the speed at which temperature waves can penetrate a substance. Snow and ice are many
orders of magnitude less efficient at diffusing heat than air. Snow cover insulates the ground surface, and sea ice insulates the underlying ocean, decoupling the surface-atmosphere interface with respect to both heat and moisture fluxes. The flux of moisture from a water surface is eliminated by even a thin skin of ice, whereas the flux of heat through thin ice continues to be substantial until it attains a thickness in excess of 30 to 40 cm. However, even a small amount of snow on top of the ice will dramatically reduce the heat flux and slow down the rate of ice growth. The insulating effect of snow also has major implications for the
hydrological cycle. In non-permafrost regions, the insulating effect of snow is such that only near-surface ground freezes and deep-water drainage is uninterrupted.[7]
While snow and ice act to insulate the surface from large energy losses in winter, they also act to retard warming in the spring and summer because of the large amount of energy required to melt ice (the
latent heat of fusion, 3.34 x 105 J/kg at 0 °C). However, the strong static stability of the atmosphere over areas of extensive snow or ice tends to confine the immediate cooling effect to a relatively shallow layer, so that associated atmospheric anomalies are usually short-lived and local to regional in scale.[8] In some areas of the world such as
Eurasia, however, the cooling associated with a heavy snowpack and moist spring soils is known to play a role in modulating the summer
monsoon circulation.[9]
There are numerous cryosphere-climate feedbacks in the
global climate system. These operate over a wide range of spatial and temporal scales from local seasonal cooling of air temperatures to hemispheric-scale variations in ice sheets over time scales of thousands of years. The feedback mechanisms involved are often complex and incompletely understood. For example, Curry et al. (1995) showed that the so-called "simple" sea ice-albedo feedback involved complex interactions with lead fraction, melt ponds, ice thickness, snow cover, and sea-ice extent.[citation needed]
The role of snow cover in modulating the monsoon is just one example of a short-term cryosphere-climate feedback involving the land surface and the atmosphere.[9][citation needed]
Ice sheets and
glaciers are flowing ice masses that rest on solid land. They are controlled by snow accumulation, surface and basal melt, calving into surrounding oceans or lakes and internal dynamics. The latter results from gravity-driven creep flow ("
glacial flow") within the ice body and sliding on the underlying land, which leads to thinning and horizontal spreading.[11] Any imbalance of this dynamic equilibrium between mass gain, loss and transport due to flow results in either growing or shrinking ice bodies.
Relationships between global climate and changes in ice extent are complex. The mass balance of land-based glaciers and ice sheets is determined by the accumulation of snow, mostly in winter, and warm-season
ablation due primarily to net radiation and turbulent heat fluxes to melting ice and snow from warm-air advection[12][13] Where ice masses terminate in the
ocean, iceberg
calving is the major contributor to mass loss. In this situation, the ice margin may extend out into deep water as a floating
ice shelf, such as that in the
Ross Sea.
A
glacier (US: /ˈɡleɪʃər/; UK: /ˈɡlæsiər,ˈɡleɪsiər/) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its
ablation over many years, often
centuries. It acquires distinguishing features, such as
crevasses and
seracs, as it slowly flows and deforms under stresses induced by its weight. As it moves, it abrades rock and debris from its substrate to create landforms such as
cirques,
moraines, or
fjords. Although a glacier may flow into a body of water, it forms only on land and is distinct from the much thinner
sea ice and lake ice that form on the surface of bodies of water.
On Earth, 99% of glacial ice is contained within vast
ice sheets (also known as "continental glaciers") in the
polar regions, but glaciers may be found in
mountain ranges on every continent other than the Australian mainland, including Oceania's high-latitude
oceanic island countries such as
New Zealand. Between latitudes 35°N and 35°S, glaciers occur only in the
Himalayas,
Andes, and a few high mountains in East Africa, Mexico,
New Guinea and on
Zard-Kuh in Iran.[14] With more than 7,000 known glaciers,
Pakistan has more glacial ice than any other country outside the polar regions.[15][16] Glaciers cover about 10% of Earth's land surface. Continental glaciers cover nearly 13 million km2 (5 million sq mi) or about 98% of
Antarctica's 13.2 million km2 (5.1 million sq mi), with an average thickness of ice 2,100 m (7,000 ft). Greenland and
Patagonia also have huge expanses of continental glaciers.[17] The volume of glaciers, not including the ice sheets of Antarctica and Greenland, has been estimated at 170,000 km3.[18]
Glacial ice is the largest reservoir of
fresh water on Earth, holding with ice sheets about 69 percent of the world's freshwater.[19][20] Many glaciers from
temperate,
alpine and seasonal
polar climates store water as ice during the colder seasons and release it later in the form of
meltwater as warmer summer temperatures cause the glacier to melt, creating a
water source that is especially important for plants, animals and human uses when other sources may be scant. However, within high-altitude and Antarctic environments, the seasonal temperature difference is often not sufficient to release meltwater.
In
glaciology, an
ice sheet, also known as a continental glacier,[21] is a mass of
glacialice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50,000 km2 (19,000 sq mi).[22] The only current ice sheets are the
Antarctic ice sheet and the
Greenland ice sheet. Ice sheets are bigger than
ice shelves or alpine
glaciers. Masses of ice covering less than 50,000 km2 are termed an
ice cap. An ice cap will typically feed a series of glaciers around its periphery.
Although the surface is cold, the base of an ice sheet is generally warmer due to
geothermal heat. In places, melting occurs and the melt-water lubricates the ice sheet so that it flows more rapidly. This process produces fast-flowing channels in the ice sheet — these are
ice streams.
Sea ice covers much of the polar oceans and forms by freezing of sea water.
Satellite data since the early 1970s reveal considerable seasonal, regional, and interannual variability in the sea ice covers of both hemispheres. Seasonally, sea-ice extent in the
Southern Hemisphere varies by a factor of 5, from a minimum of 3–4 million km2 in February to a maximum of 17–20 million km2 in September.[23][24] The seasonal variation is much less in the Northern Hemisphere where the confined nature and high latitudes of the
Arctic Ocean result in a much larger perennial ice cover, and the surrounding land limits the equatorward extent of wintertime ice. Thus, the seasonal variability in
Northern Hemisphere ice extent varies by only a factor of 2, from a minimum of 7–9 million km2 in September to a maximum of 14–16 million km2 in March.[24][25]
The ice cover exhibits much greater regional-scale interannual variability than it does hemispherical. For instance, in the region of the
Sea of Okhotsk and
Japan, maximum ice extent decreased from 1.3 million km2 in 1983 to 0.85 million km2 in 1984, a decrease of 35%, before rebounding the following year to 1.2 million km2.[24] The regional fluctuations in both hemispheres are such that for any several-year period of the
satellite record some regions exhibit decreasing ice coverage while others exhibit increasing ice cover.[26]
Permafrost (from perma- '
permanent', and frost) is
soil or underwater
sediment which continuously remains below 0 °C (32 °F) for two years or more: the oldest permafrost had been continuously frozen for around 700,000 years.[27] While the shallowest permafrost has a vertical extent of below a meter (3 ft), the deepest is greater than 1,500 m (4,900 ft).[28] Similarly, the area of individual permafrost zones may be limited to narrow mountain
summits or extend across vast
Arctic regions.[29] The ground beneath
glaciers and
ice sheets is not usually defined as permafrost, so on land, permafrost is generally located beneath a so-called
active layer of soil which freezes and thaws depending on the season.[30]
Around 15% of the
Northern Hemisphere or 11% of the global surface is underlain by permafrost,[31] with the total area of around 18 million km2 (6.9 million sq mi).[32] This includes large areas of
Alaska,
Canada,
Greenland, and
Siberia. It is also located in high mountain regions, with the
Tibetan Plateau a prominent example. Only a minority of permafrost exists in the
Southern Hemisphere, where it is consigned to mountain slopes like in the
Andes of
Patagonia, the
Southern Alps of New Zealand, or the highest mountains of
Antarctica.[29][27]
Permafrost contains large amounts of dead
biomass that have accumulated throughout millennia without having had the chance to fully decompose and release their
carbon, making
tundra soil a
carbon sink.[29] As
global warming heats the ecosystem, frozen soil thaws and becomes warm enough for decomposition to start anew, accelerating the
permafrost carbon cycle. Depending on conditions at the time of thaw, decomposition can either release
carbon dioxide or
methane, and these
greenhouse gas emissions act as a
climate change feedback.[33][34][35] The emissions from thawing permafrost will have a sufficient impact on the climate to impact global
carbon budgets. It is difficult to accurately predict how much greenhouse gases the permafrost releases because of the different thaw processes are still uncertain. There is widespread agreement that the emissions will be smaller than human-caused emissions and not large enough to result in
runaway warming.[36] Instead, the annual permafrost emissions are likely comparable with global emissions from
deforestation, or to annual emissions of large countries such as
Russia, the
United States or
China.[37]
Most of the Earth's snow-covered area is located in the
Northern Hemisphere, and varies seasonally from 46.5 million km2 in January to 3.8 million km2 in August.[38]
Snow cover is an extremely important storage component in the water balance, especially seasonal
snowpacks in mountainous areas of the world. Though limited in extent, seasonal
snowpacks in the
Earth’s mountain ranges account for the major source of the runoff for stream flow and
groundwater recharge over wide areas of the midlatitudes. For example, over 85% of the annual runoff from the
Colorado River basin originates as snowmelt.
Snowmelt runoff from the Earth's mountains fills the rivers and recharges the aquifers that over a billion people depend on for their water resources.[citation needed]
Furthermore, over 40% of the world's protected areas are in mountains, attesting to their value both as unique
ecosystems needing protection and as recreation areas for humans.[citation needed]
Ice forms on
rivers and
lakes in response to seasonal cooling. The sizes of the ice bodies involved are too small to exert anything other than localized climatic effects. However, the freeze-up/break-up processes respond to large-scale and local weather factors, such that considerable interannual variability exists in the dates of appearance and disappearance of the ice. Long series of lake-ice observations can serve as a proxy climate record, and the monitoring of freeze-up and break-up trends may provide a convenient integrated and seasonally-specific index of climatic perturbations. Information on river-ice conditions is less useful as a climatic proxy because ice formation is strongly dependent on river-flow regime, which is affected by precipitation, snow melt, and watershed runoff as well as being subject to human interference that directly modifies channel flow, or that indirectly affects the runoff via land-use practices.[citation needed]
Lake freeze-up depends on the heat storage in the lake and therefore on its depth, the rate and temperature of any
inflow, and water-air energy fluxes. Information on lake depth is often unavailable, although some indication of the depth of shallow lakes in the
Arctic can be obtained from airborne
radar imagery during late winter (Sellman et al. 1975) and spaceborne optical imagery during summer (Duguay and Lafleur 1997). The timing of breakup is modified by snow depth on the ice as well as by ice thickness and freshwater inflow.[citation needed]
The cryosphere, the area of the Earth covered by snow or ice, is extremely sensitive to changes in global climate.[42] There has been an extensive loss of snow on land since 1981. Some of the largest declines have been observed in the spring.[43] During the 21st century,
snow cover is projected to continue its retreat in almost all regions.[44]: 39–69
The
Greenland ice sheet is an
ice sheet which forms the second largest body of ice in the world. It is an average of 1.67 km (1.0 mi) thick, and over 3 km (1.9 mi) thick at its maximum.[48] It is almost 2,900 kilometres (1,800 mi) long in a north–south direction, with a maximum width of 1,100 kilometres (680 mi) at a latitude of
77°N, near its northern edge.[49] The ice sheet covers 1,710,000 square kilometres (660,000 sq mi), around 80% of the surface of
Greenland, or about 12% of the area of the
Antarctic ice sheet.[48] The term 'Greenland ice sheet' is often shortened to GIS or GrIS in
scientific literature.[50][51][52][53]
If all 2,900,000 cubic kilometres (696,000 cu mi) of the ice sheet were to melt, it would increase global sea levels by ~7.4 m (24 ft).[48] Global warming between 1.7 °C (3.1 °F) and 2.3 °C (4.1 °F) would likely make this melting inevitable.[53] However, 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) would still cause ice loss equivalent to 1.4 m (4+1⁄2 ft) of sea level rise,[54] and more ice will be lost if the temperatures exceed that level before declining.[53] If global temperatures continue to rise, the ice sheet will likely disappear within 10,000 years.[55][56] At very high warming, its future lifetime goes down to around 1,000 years.[57]
The West Antarctic ice sheet is likely to melt completely,[58][59][60]unless temperatures are reduced by 2 °C (3.6 °F) below the levels of the year 2020.[61] The loss of this ice sheet would take between 2,000 and 13,000 years,[62][63] although several centuries of high emissions could shorten this timeframe to 500 years.[64] A sea-level rise of 3.3 m (10 ft 10 in) would occur if the ice sheet collapses leaving ice caps on the mountains and 4.3 m (14 ft 1 in) if those ice caps also melt.[65]Isostatic rebound may contribute an additional 1 m (3 ft 3 in) to global sea levels over another 1,000 years.[64] In contrast, the East Antarctic ice sheet is far more stable and may only cause a sea-level rise of 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) - 0.9 m (2 ft 11 in) from the current level of warming, a small fraction of the 53.3 m (175 ft) contained in the full ice sheet.[66] With a global warming of around 3 °C (5.4 °F), vulnerable areas like the
Wilkes Basin and
Aurora Basin may collapse over a period of around 2,000 years,[62][63] potentially adding up to 6.4 m (21 ft 0 in) to sea levels.[64] The complete melting and disappearance of the East Antarctic ice sheet would require at least 10,000 years, and it would only occur if global warming reaches 5 °C (9.0 °F) to 10 °C (18 °F).[62][63]
Same vantage point in 2006. The glacier retreated 1.9 kilometres (1.2 mi) in 33 years.
The
retreat of glaciers since 1850 is well documented and is one of the
effects of climate change. The retreat of mountain glaciers, notably in western North America, Asia, the Alps and
tropical and
subtropical regions of South America, Africa and
Indonesia, provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century. The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key
outlet glaciers of the
Greenland and
West Antarcticice sheets may foreshadow a
rise in sea level, which would affect coastal regions. Excluding peripheral glaciers of
ice sheets, the total cumulated global glacial losses over the 26-year period from 1993 to 2018 were likely 5500 gigatons, or 210 gigatons per yr.[67]: 1275
Deglaciation occurs naturally at the end of
ice ages, but
glaciologists find the current
glacier retreat is accelerated by the measured increase of atmospheric
greenhouse gases and is thus effect of climate change.
Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier. If the amount of frozen precipitation in the
accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the
ablation zone a glacier will advance; if the accumulation is less than the ablation, the glacier will retreat. Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances, and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation, will eventually disappear.
Sea ice reflects 50% to 70% of the incoming solar radiation back into space. Only 6% of incoming solar energy is reflected by the ocean.[69] As the climate warms, the area covered by snow or sea ice decreases. After sea ice melts, more energy is absorbed by the ocean, so it warms up. This
ice-albedo feedback is a self-reinforcing feedback of climate change.[70] Large-scale measurements of sea ice have only been possible since satellites came into use.[71]
Sea ice in the Arctic has declined in recent decades in area and volume due to climate change. It has been melting more in summer than it refreezes in winter. The decline of sea ice in the Arctic has been accelerating during the early twenty-first century. It has a rate of decline of 4.7% per decade. It has declined over 50% since the first satellite records.[72][73][74] Ice-free summers are expected to be rare at 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) degrees of warming. They are set to occur at least once every decade with a warming level of 2 °C (3.6 °F).[75]: 8 The Arctic will likely become ice-free at the end of some summers before 2050.[76]: 9
Sea ice extent in Antarctica varies a lot year by year. This makes it difficult to determine a trend, and record highs and record lows have been observed between 2013 and 2023. The general trend since 1979, the start of the
satellite measurements, has been roughly flat. Between 2015 and 2023, there has been a decline in sea ice, but due to the high variability, this does not correspond to a significant trend.[77]
Globally, permafrost warmed by about 0.3 °C (0.54 °F) between 2007 and 2016, with stronger warming observed in the continuous permafrost zone relative to the discontinuous zone. Observed warming was up to 3 °C (5.4 °F) in parts of
Northern Alaska (early 1980s to mid-2000s) and up to 2 °C (3.6 °F) in parts of the Russian European North (1970–2020). This warming inevitably causes permafrost to thaw:
active layer thickness has increased in the European and
Russian Arctic across the 21st century and at high elevation areas in Europe and Asia since the 1990s.[78]: 1237 Between 2000 and 2018, the average active layer thickness had increased from ~127 centimetres (4.17 ft) to ~145 centimetres (4.76 ft), at an average annual rate of ~0.65 centimetres (0.26 in).[79] In
Yukon, the zone of continuous permafrost might have moved 100 kilometres (62 mi) poleward since 1899, but accurate records only go back 30 years. The extent of subsea permafrost is decreasing as well; as of 2019, ~97% of permafrost under Arctic ice shelves is becoming warmer and thinner.[80][36]: 1281 Based on high agreement across model projections, fundamental process understanding, and paleoclimate evidence, it is virtually certain that permafrost extent and volume will continue to shrink as the global climate warms, with the extent of the losses determined by the magnitude of warming.[78]: 1283
Permafrost thaw is associated with a wide range of issues, and
International Permafrost Association (IPA) exists to help address them. It convenes International Permafrost Conferences and maintains
Global Terrestrial Network for Permafrost, which undertakes special projects such as preparing databases, maps, bibliographies, and glossaries, and coordinates international field programmes and networks.[81]
Snow cover decrease
Studies in 2021 found that Northern Hemisphere snow cover has been decreasing since 1978, along with snow depth.[82]Paleoclimate observations show that such changes are unprecedented over the last millennia in Western North America.[83][84][82]
North American winter snow cover increased during the 20th century,[85][86] largely in response to an increase in precipitation.[87]
Because of its close relationship with hemispheric air temperature, snow cover is an important indicator of climate change.[citation needed]
Global warming is expected to result in major changes to the partitioning of snow and rainfall, and to the timing of snowmelt, which will have important implications for water use and management.[citation needed] These changes also involve potentially important decadal and longer time-scale
feedbacks to the climate system through temporal and spatial changes in
soil moisture and runoff to the
oceans.(Walsh 1995). Freshwater fluxes from the snow cover into the marine environment may be important, as the total flux is probably of the same magnitude as desalinated ridging and rubble areas of sea ice.[88] In addition, there is an associated pulse of precipitated pollutants which accumulate over the Arctic winter in snowfall and are released into the ocean upon
ablation of the
sea ice.[citation needed]
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