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Heating
greenhouses by burning fossil fuel or electricity generated by burning fossil fuel;[4]
Burning
garden prunings and
weeds on a
bonfire, though
pyrolysis of wood turns 35% of its carbon (which would otherwise decompose to CO2) into
biochar,[14] which remains stable in the soil for thousands of years;[15]
Heating and treating
swimming pools by burning fossil fuel or electricity generated by burning fossil fuel;[2]
Watering their gardens with
tapwater, which has been treated and pumped by burning fossil fuel, with a greenhouse gas impact of about 1 kg CO2e/m3 water.[2][4][12][20][21]
Buying garden products which have been transported by vehicles powered by fossil fuel.[2]
Gardeners may cause extra methane to be added to the atmosphere in several ways:
Compacting soil so that it becomes anaerobic, for example by treading on soil when it is wet;
Allowing
compost heaps to become compacted and anaerobic;[4][23]
Creating homemade liquid feed by putting the leaves of plants such as
comfrey under water, with the unintended consequence that the plants may release methane as they
decay;
Killing pernicious
weeds by covering them with water, with the unintended consequence that the plants may release methane as they decay;
Allowing
ponds to become anaerobic, for example, by adding unsuitable
fish species which stir up sediment that then blocks light from and kills
submerged oxygenating plants.[24]
Gardeners may cause extra nitrous oxide to be added to the atmosphere by:
Using synthetic nitrogen
fertilizer, for example "weed and feed" on
lawns, especially if it is applied when plants are not actively growing, the soil is compacted, or when other factors are limiting so that the plants cannot make use of the nitrogen;[20][27][28]
Compacting the soil, such as by working in the garden when the soil is wet, which will increase the conversion of
nitrates to nitrous oxide by soil bacteria;[27]
Black carbon is not a gas, but it acts like a greenhouse gas because it can be
suspended in the atmosphere and absorb
heat.[8][9]
Gardeners may cause extra black carbon to be added to the atmosphere by burning garden
prunings and
weeds on bonfires, especially if the waste is wet and becomes black carbon in the form of soot.[5] Gardeners are also responsible for extra black carbon produced when they buy garden products which have been transported by vehicles powered by
fossil fuel especially the
diesel used in most
lorries.
Gardening to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and absorb carbon dioxide
There are many ways in which climate-friendly gardeners may reduce their contribution to climate change and help their gardens absorb
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.[1][2][4][12][27][29]
Climate-friendly gardeners can find good ideas in many other
sustainable approaches:
Climate-friendly gardening includes actions which protect
carbon stores beyond gardens. The biggest carbon stores in land are in soil; the two habitat types with the biggest carbon stores per hectare are
woods and
wetlands; and woods absorb more carbon dioxide per hectare per year than most other habitats. Climate-friendly gardeners therefore aim to ensure that nothing they do will harm these habitats.
According to Morison and Morecroft (eds.)'s Plant Growth and Climate Change,[30] the
net primary productivity (the net amount of carbon absorbed each year) of various habitats is:
Wetlands: 643 tonnes carbon per hectare in soil + 43 tonnes carbon per hectare in vegetation = total 686 tonnes carbon per hectare;
Tropical forests: 123 tonnes carbon per hectare in soil + 120 tonnes carbon per hectare in vegetation = total 243 tonnes carbon per hectare;
Temperate forests: 96 tonnes carbon per hectare in soil + 57 tonnes carbon per hectare in vegetation = total 153 tonnes carbon per hectare;
Temperate grasslands: 164 tonnes carbon per hectare in soil + 7 tonnes carbon per hectare in vegetation = total 171 tonnes carbon per hectare;
Croplands: 80 tonnes carbon per hectare in soil + 2 tonnes carbon per hectare in vegetation = total 82 tonnes carbon per hectare.
The figures quoted above are global averages. More recent research in 2009 has found that the habitat with the world's highest known total carbon density - 1,867 tonnes of carbon per hectare - is temperate moist forest of
Eucalyptus regnans in the Central Highlands of south-east
Australia; and, in general, that temperate forests contain more carbon than either
boreal forests or tropical forests.[31]
Carbon stores in Britain
According to Milne and Brown's 1997 paper "Carbon in the vegetation and soils of Great Britain",[32]Britain's
vegetation and soil are estimated to contain 9952 million tonnes of carbon, of which almost all is in the soil, and most in
Scottishpeatland soil:
Soils in Scotland: 6948 million tonnes carbon;
Soils in
England and
Wales: 2890 million tonnes carbon;
Vegetation in British
woods and
plantations (which cover only 11% of Britain's land area): 91 million tonnes carbon;
Other vegetation: 23 million tonnes carbon.
A 2005 report[33] suggested that British woodland soil may contain as much as 250 tonnes of carbon per hectare.
Many studies of
soil carbon only study the carbon in the top 30 centimetres, but soil is often much deeper than that, especially below woodland. One 2009 study of the
United Kingdom's
carbon stores by Keith Dyson and others gives figures for soil carbon down to 100 cm below the
habitats, including "Forestland", "Cropland" and "Grassland", covered by the
Kyoto Protocol reporting requirements.[34]
Forestland soils: average figures in tonnes carbon per hectare are 160 (England), 428 (Scotland), 203 (Wales), and 366 (
Northern Ireland).
Grassland soils: average figures in tonnes carbon per hectare are 148 (England), 386 (Scotland), 171 (Wales), and 304 (Northern Ireland).
Cropland soils: average figures in tonnes carbon per hectare are 110 (England), 159 (Scotland), 108 (Wales), and 222 (Northern Ireland).
The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's Special Report Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry gives a figure of 2011 gigatonnes of carbon for global carbon stocks in the top 1 metre of soils, much more than the carbon stores in the vegetation or the atmosphere.[6]
Climate-friendly gardeners also avoid using
tapwater not only because of the
greenhouse gases emitted when fossil fuels are burnt to treat and pump water,[1] but because if water is taken from wetlands, the carbon stores are more likely to be oxidized to
carbon dioxide.[6]
A climate-friendly garden therefore does not contain large
irrigatedlawns, but instead includes
water-butts to collect
rainwater, water-thrifty plants which survive on rainwater and do not need watering after they are established,
trees,
shrubs and
hedges to
shelter gardens from the drying effects of
sun and
wind, and
groundcover plants and
organic mulch to protect the soil and keep it moist.[2][4][5]p. 242[12]p. 80–82[35]
Climate-friendly gardeners will ensure that any paved surfaces in their gardens (which are kept to a minimum to increase carbon stores) are
permeable,[12] and may also make
rain gardens, sunken areas into which rainwater from buildings and paving is directed, so that the rain can then be fed back into
groundwater rather than going into
storm drains. The plants in rain gardens must be able to grow in both dry and wet soils.[2][36]
Protecting carbon stores in woodland
Wetlands may store the most carbon in their soils, but woods store more carbon in their living
biomass than any other type of vegetation, and their soils store the most carbon after wetlands.[6] Climate-friendly gardeners therefore ensure that any wooden products they buy, such as
garden furniture, have been made of wood from
sustainably managed woodland.
Protecting and increasing carbon stores in gardens
Climate-friendly gardeners avoid things which may harm the soil. They do not tread on the soil when it is wet, because it is by then most vulnerable to compaction. They
dig and
till the soil as little as possible, and only when the soil is moist rather than wet, because cultivation increases the
oxidation of soil organic matter and produces
carbon dioxide.[2][12]p. 54–55[37][38][40]
To increase soil carbon stores, climate-friendly gardeners ensure that their gardens create optimal conditions for various vigorous healthy growth of plants, and other garden organisms above and below the ground, and reduce the impact of any
limiting factors.
In general, the more
biomass that the plants can create each year, the more carbon at which will be added to the soil.[12]p. 54–55[39]
However, only some biomass each year becomes long-term
soil carbon or humus. In Soil Carbon and Organic Farming, a 2009 report from the
Soil Association, Gundula Azeez discusses several
factors which increase how much biomass is turned into humus. These include good
soil structure,
soil organisms such as fine
root hairs,
microorganisms,
mycorrhizas and
earthworms which increases
soil aggregation, residues from plants (such as trees and shrubs) which have a high level content of resistant chemicals such as
lignin, and plant residues with a
carbon to nitrogen ratio lower than about 32:1.[41]
A light canopy of late-leafing
deciduous trees to let in enough
sunlight for growth but not so much that the garden becomes too hot and dry[39] (this is one of the principles behind many
agroforestry systems, such as
Paulownia's use in China partly because it is late-leafing and its
canopy is sparse so that
crops below it get shelter but also enough light[42]);
Groundcover plants and organic mulches (such as
woodchips over
compost made from kitchen and garden "waste") to keep soil moist and at relatively stable temperatures;[38][39]
Reducing the use of gas-powered lawn and garden equipment in favor of electric-powered devices. Instead of a leaf blower, using a rake or broom will cut down on gas emissions that contribute to climate change.
Many layers[39] of plants, including
woody plants such as trees[12] and shrubs, other
perennials, groundcover plants, deep-rooted plants, all chosen according to 'right plant, right place',[43][44] so that they are suited to their growing conditions and will grow well;
Maximise the ventilation and shading around the home as much as possible during the summer.
Lawns, like other grasslands, can build up good levels of
soil carbon,[41] but they will grow much more vigorously and store more carbon if besides
grasses, they also contain nitrogen-fixing plants such as
clover,[4] and if they are cut down using a
mulching mower which returns finely-chopped mowings to the lawn. More carbon, however, may be stored by other perennial plants such as trees[12] and shrubs and they also do not need to be maintained using
power tools.
Climate-friendly gardeners will also aim to increase biodiversity not only for the sake of the wildlife itself, but so that the garden ecosystem is resilient and more likely to store as much carbon as possible as long as possible. They will therefore avoid pesticides,[12] and increase the diversity of the habitats within their gardens.
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions
Climate-friendly gardeners can directly reduce the greenhouse gas emissions from their own gardens, but can also use their gardens to indirectly reduce greenhouse gas emissions elsewhere.
Food is a major contributor to climate change. In the United Kingdom, according to Tara Garnett of the
Food Climate Research Network, food contributes 19% of the country's greenhouse gas emissions.[47]
Soil is the biggest
store of carbon on
land. It is therefore important to protect the
soil organic matter in
farmland. Farm animals; however, especially free-range pigs, may cause erosion, and also the cultivation of the soil increases the
oxidation of soil organic matter into
carbon dioxide.[40] Other sources of greenhouse gases from farmland include: compaction caused by farm machinery or overgrazing by
farm animals can make soil
anaerobic and produce
methane, which is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil. Methane emissions also result from livestock and other agricultural practices, land use and by the decay of organic wastes in municipal solid waste landfills; farm animals produce methane; and
nitrogen fertilizers can be converted to
nitrous oxide which is also emitted during agricultural, land use, and industrial activities; combustion of fossil fuels and solid wastes; as well as during treatment of wastewater.
Climate-friendly gardeners therefore grow at least some of their food,[12] and may choose
food crops which therefore help to keep carbon in farmland
soils if they grow such high-risk crops in small
vegetable plots in their gardens, where it is easier to protect the soil than in large fields under
commercial pressures. Climate-friendly gardeners may grow and eat plants such as sweet
cicely which sweeten food, and so reduce the land area needed for sugar-beet.[50]
They may also choose to grow
perennial food plants to not only reduce their indirect greenhouse gas emissions from farmland, but also to increase carbon stores in their own gardens.[39][50][51][52]
Grassland contains more carbon per hectare than arable fields, but farm animals, especially
ruminants such as
cattle or
sheep, produce large amounts of methane, directly and from manure heaps and slurry.[22] Slurry and manure may also produce nitrous oxide.[28][53]
Gardeners who want to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions can help themselves to eat less
meat and
dairy produce by growing
nut trees which are a good source of
tasty,
protein-rich
food, including
walnuts which are an excellent source of the
omega-3 fatty acidalpha-linolenic acid.[54]
Farmers are aware that consumers are increasingly asking for "green credentials". Gardeners who understand climate-friendly practices can advocate their use by farmers.[1]
From industry
Climate-friendly gardeners aim to reduce their consumption in general.[12] In particular, they try to avoid or reduce their consumption of tapwater because of the greenhouse gases emitted when fossil fuels are burnt to supply the energy needed to treat and pump it to them.[1] Instead, gardeners can garden using only rainwater.[2][35]
Climate-friendly gardeners will also aim to follow "
cradle-to-cradle design" and "
circular economy" principles: when they choose to buy or make something, it should be possible to take it apart again and
recycle or
compost every part, so that there is no waste, only
raw materials to be made into something else.[57]
This will reduce the greenhouse gases otherwise produced when
extracting raw materials.
From transport
Gardeners can reduce not only their
food miles by growing some of their own food, but also their "gardening miles" by reducing the amount of plants and other materials they import, obtaining them as locally as possible and with as little packaging as possible. This might include ordering plants by
mail order from a specialist nursery if the plants are sent out
bare-root, reducing transport demand and the use of
peat-based composts; or growing plants from
seed, which will also increase
genetic diversity and therefore
resilience; or growing plants
vegetatively from
cuttings or
offsets from other local gardeners; or buying reclaimed materials from salvage firms.[12]
From houses
Climate-friendly gardeners can use their gardens in ways which reduce greenhouse gas emissions from homes by:
Using sunlight and wind to dry washing on washing lines instead of fossil fuel-generated electricity to run
tumble dryers;
Planting
deciduousclimbers on houses and planting deciduous trees at suitable distances from the house to provide shade during the summer, reducing the consumption of electricity for
air conditioning, but also such that at cooler times of year, sunlight can reach and warm a house, reducing
heating costs and consumption;[5][37]
Planting hedges, trees, shrubs and climbers to shelter houses from wind, reducing heating costs and consumption during the winter (as long as any planting does not create a
wind-tunnel effect).[5]p. 243[37]
Climate-friendly gardeners may also choose to reduce their own personal greenhouse gas emissions by growing and eating
carminative plants such as
fennel and
garlic which reduce intestinal gases such as methane.[58]
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions from gardens and homes
There are some patent sources of greenhouse gas emissions in gardens and some more latent.
Power tools which are powered by
diesel or
petrol, or
electricitygenerated by burning other
fossil fuels, emit
carbon dioxide. Climate-friendly gardeners may therefore choose to use
hand tools rather than power tools, or power tools powered by renewable electricity,[12] or
design their gardens to reduce or remove a need to use power tools. For example, they may choose dense, slow-growing species for
hedges so that the hedges only need to be cut once a year.[13]
Turning one's thermostat equipment down to 3 degrees Fahrenheit in the winter and up to 3 degrees Fahrenheit in the summer will help reduce carbon dioxide emissions by about 1,050 pounds per year.
In place of a water-thirsty lawn that requires a lot of fertilizers and herbicides to be kept green and weed-free, native vegetation may be planted. This can be maintained with can a drip irrigation system to run by a "smart" sprinkler control. These "smart" sprinklers can determine whether it has rained recently and will not water the plants if it has. They are also system programmable relative to certain types of plants, as opposed to zones, so if certain plants need more water than others, they get it without drowning out other less water-loving plants.
Lawns are often cut by lawn mowers and, in drier parts of the world, are often irrigated by tapwater. Climate-friendly gardeners will therefore do what they can to reduce this consumption by:
Replacing part of or all lawns with other perennial planting such as trees and shrubs with less ecologically demanding maintenance requirements;
Cut some or all lawns only once or twice a year, i.e. convert them into
meadows;
Make lawn shapes simple so that they may be cut quickly;
Increase the cutting height of mower blades;
Use a mulching mower to return organic matter to the soil;
Sow
clover to increase vigour (without the need for synthetic fertilisers) and resilience in dry periods;
Greenhouses can be used to grow crops which might otherwise be imported from warmer climates, but if they are heated by fossil fuel, then they may cause more greenhouse gas emissions than they save. Climate-friendly gardeners will therefore use their greenhouses carefully by:
Choosing only annual plants which will only be in the greenhouse during warmer months, or perennial plants which do not need any extra heat during winter;
Using water tanks as heat stores and compost heaps as heat sources inside greenhouses so that they stay frost-free in winter.
Climate-friendly gardeners will not put woody prunings on bonfires, which will emit carbon dioxide and black carbon due to the high oxygen content of such fires,[5] but instead burn them indoors in a
wood-burning stove and therefore cut emissions from fossil fuel, or cut them up to use as
mulch and increase soil carbon stores,[12] make
biochar by
pyrolysis,[15] or add the smaller prunings to compost heaps to keep them
aerated, reducing
methane emissions.[23] To reduce the risk of fire, they will also choose fire-resistant plants from habitats which are not prone to
wildfires and which do not catch fire easily, rather than fire-adapted
plants from fire-prone habitats, which are flammable and adapted to encourage fires and then gain a competitive advantage over less resistant species.
Climate-friendly gardeners may use deep-rooted plants such as
comfrey to bring nutrients closer to the surface
topsoil, but will do so without making the leaves into a liquid feed, because the rotting leaves in the
anaerobic conditions under water may emit methane.
Nitrogen fertilizers may be
oxidised to
nitrous oxide,[12] especially if fertilizer is applied in excess, or when plants are not actively growing. Climate-friendly gardeners may choose instead to use
nitrogen-fixing plants which will add nitrogen to the soil without increasing nitrous oxide emissions.
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