The ethnic names of this List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes are stated or implied by the ancient authors to have belonged to an overall ethnic identity called by them generally
Celts. Some of the main authors, such as Julius Caesar, explicitly state that Celtic, the adjective, implies the use of a distinctive Celtic language. If a tribe did not speak Celtic, it was not called Celtic. This implication is sufficiently widespread for modern linguists to conclude that if a tribe was called Celtic, it spoke Celtic.
From widespread evidence in literature, inscriptions, and names, modern linguists are able to conclude to a group of closely related languages termed
Celtic languages. Linguistic classification of languages by the
Tree Method, or
Genetic Method, which establishes degree of similarity of vocabulary and syntax between languages, can be used to assign a relationship of one language to another. Closely similar languages are closely related by definition. This relationship is termed
ethnolinguistic.
An ethnolinguistic relationship has nothing to do with biological genetic relationships. Two populations may be close ethnolinguistically but totally different genetically, as when one population learns the language of another. Similarly the customs of two populations apart from language have nothing to do with either the people or the language. Among such customs are the archaeologies. The archaeological finds and culture names have nothing to do with the langage, except for inscriptions found. This article attempts to arrange Celtic languages by ethnolinguistic similarity. Nothing is impled concerning the origins of the peoples or their material culture.
Modern people and their languages are excluded from this list. A few Celtic languages are still extant. They are not of interest here.
The ancestor language
In the Tree Model of language development, languages develop historically (or diachronically, "through time") by splitting. At a point T1 in time a population of P speaks a common language L. Over the range of P two different groups, P1 and P2, within P begin to speak L differently, so that at T2 there are now L1 and L2 where before was only L. L1 and L2 are
sister languages, while L is variously called the common,
proto-, or parent language.
It is clear that in the Tree Model of language development, groups of sister languages, L1, L2, ..., Ln, exist, and every group must come from a proto-language. The very assertion that any languages are related implies the former existence of one, and only one, proto-language as ancestor. Thus to refer at all to a group of languages termed Celtic implies the sometime existence of
Proto-Celtic. The population P of this L is often referenced as the
Proto-Celts. Such a term implies that they spoke the language. There is no other definition of Proto-Celtic. They cannot logically have not spoken it, or have spoken anything else as a primary language.
There is only one Proto-Celtic. From it descend all the Celtic languages without exception. Proto-Celtic is the ancestor of the Celtic languages. The linguistic possibilty that a language might belong to more than one tree and thus have more than one ancestor is not of concern here but is considered in the lists below. Such a case might happen when two populations combine and develop a combined language. There is, however, only one Celtic ancestor of any Celtic language, regardless of what else it might be. If any of its languages are considered out of the group, then it is not Proto-Celtic. If Proto-Celtic is considered not to have existed, then none of the supposed Celtic languages are that. There is a theory that Celtic languages and therefore Celts did not exist as such. Such a view linguistically would require linguists to discard all their dictionaries and start over, an unlikely event.
Merging into the Tree Model is the Genetic Model. In the latter, an ancestor with all its descendants is termed a
clade, and is called
monophyletic. As languages do not suddenly appear from nowhere, the Celtic clade must have had a mother language as well. It undoubtedly had sister languages to Proto-Celtic. Proto-Celtic and its ancestor alone are called
paraphyletic, meaning that some of the sister languages of Proto-Celtic are not considered. One of the problems of
historical linguistics is to determine what sister groups are clades and what not.
Asit turns out, Proto-Celtic and all its sister languages are in a virtual clade called
Indo-European. The term virtual refers to the possibility of other Indo-European languages being discovered. As this possibility is always open, then neither Indo-European nor any of its descendant groups can ever be a clade. For the time being, however, based on what is known, they are generally considered clades.
Corresponding to this conception there must have been a
Proto-Indo-European language spoken by a population that linguists may call
Proto-Indo-Europeans. This is a linguistic exonym. The speakers did not imagine themselves such or know of their far-ranging linguistic alliances. Analysis of tribal names suggests they may have called themselves by some sort of family name, such as "the people" or "our people." There is no evidence of an Indo-European race, as anyone could come into contact with the Indo-Europeans and learn Indo-European.
Proto-Indo-European, though the mother of Proto-Celtic was not a Celtic language, nor a Greek language, nor an Anatolian language, nor any of the others. The proto-language has a number of characteristics that, passed on to the descendant languages, are termed in
linguistics shared retentions. No daughter language can ever be defined on shared retentions, as there is no way it can differ from the parent. What makes a language distinctive is the shared innovations, characteristics that are not in Proto-Indo-European. It can get these from anywhere as long as it is non-Indo-European. The term shared applies to different subjects in each case. The innovations will be shared by daughter languages of the daughter.
Map 2 depicts the current state of the virtual clades of Indo-European in the view of D.W. Anthony. Credibility requires a fundamental assumption that archaeological cultures can represent language groups. For example, perhaps there is something about the archaeology of London that tags it as English-speaking rather than French-speaking, etc.
The pre-WWII scholars had adopted this view with reservations; for example,
Heinrich Schlieman had applied the term
Minyan Ware to a Middle Helladic pottery type found over much of Greece, especially at
Orchomenus (Boeotia). At that location the legendary king
Minyas (mythology) was said to have ruled. Schlieman assigned the pottery to an ethnic identity, which he created from the myth, the
Minyans. The traditional archaeologists of the WWII period, such as
Carl Blegen, and his students and successors, went Schlieman one better, so to speak, in daring hypotheses by supposing Minyans to have been Proto-Greeks. This supposition was abruptly opposed on the grounds that it was too far out of the evidence to be justitifed. One had to invent Minyans and then invent a Proto-Greek for them without a shred of evidence about the language.
Archaeologists of the times were daring. Eurasian cultures were fair game for anthropological archaeologists such as
V. Gordon Childe, who became the British mentor of archaeology. He was sorting through dozens of new cultures without really knowing what to do with them, as there was no way to date them. He threw them all into the thousand years around 2000 BC, and developed some very imaginative links betweem them, influenced, as they all were by the rising Nazi racial standards.
James Henry Breasted provided a benchmark with his concept of the Great White Races, as opposed to the Mongoloids and Negroids, who didn't fare so well. He was only a notable example of a general line of thought.
A catastophe was about to fall on the archaeology of the 1950's and before. The field of atomic research concomitant with the development of the atomic bomb discovered a method of dating organic material by estimating time of radioactive decay (
Radiocarbon dating). Streams of new dates for the Eurasian cultures fell upon the works and estimates of the WWII scholars. Although Childe's success in some areas stood, for the most part his sequences lost meaning. The dates were quite different from previously expected. The whole thing needed to be redone. Childe's Aryan Race, for example, vanished away. Aged and ill from cancer, Childe jumped off a cliff.
They lived Southern
Central Europe (in the Upper
Danube basin and neighbouring regions) which is hypothesized as the original area of the
Celts (
Proto-Celts), corresponding to the
Hallstatt Culture. Later they expanded towards the Middle Danube valley and to parts of the Balkans and towards inland central Asia Minor or Anatolia (Galatians).
Hercynian Forest (Hercynia Silva), north of the Danube and east of the Rhine was in their lands. Celts, especially those from Western and Central Europe, were generally called by the Romans “Galli” i.e. “Gauls”, this name was synonym of “
Celts”, this also means that not all of the peoples and tribes called by the name “Gauls” (Galli) were specifically Gauls in a narrower more regional sense. Their language is scarcely attested and can not be classified as a P-Celtic or Q-Celtic.
Some closely fit the concept of a tribe. Others are confederations or even unions of tribes.
Anartes/
Anartoi – Areas of modern
Slovakia and modern Northern
Hungary, north of the river
Tysia / Tibiscus (
Tisza). They lived in the eastern part of the
Hercynia Silva (Hercynian Forest). Areas of modern central Slovakia and modern Northern Hungary, north of the river
Tysia/Tibiscus (Tisza), north of the
Teuriscii.[3] They were later assimilated by Dacians.
Arabiates[4] - areas of modern Western Hungary and eastern Austria, west of the river
Danubius (Danube).
Belgites[5] - areas of modern Western Hungary, west of the river
Danubius (Danube).
Boii Boiates / Boviates / Boiates – La Tête de Buch, probably around
Arcachon Bay and northwest of
Landes (departement), in the
Pays de Buch and Pays de Born. Although they dwelt in
Aquitania Proper, they seem to have been a
Celtic tribe and not a tribe of the
Aquitani (a people that may have been ancestor of the
Basques).
Tulingi (
Tylangii?) – localization unclear, possibly Southern Germany, Switzerland, or Austria; an originally Boii Celtic tribe that migrated along the upper Danube and later allied with the Helvetii?; also, may have been a
Germanic tribe.
Catubrini - In the
Alps Southeastern slopes, close to
Plavis (Piave) and near
Bellunum (Belluno), to the Southwest of the
Carni. They came from Central Europe and not from
Gaul (
Gallia). (They were not Cisalpine
Gaulish Celts).
Helvetii – original dwellers of
Agri Decumates region, in the western part of
Hercynia Silva, to the east and north of the Rhine; later, possibly at the end of the 3rd century BC they expanded to the South and Southwest to land later called
Helvetia (modern day
Switzerland). They were possibly more related to the Celtic populations of the upper Danube basin than to the Celts of Gaul.
Decumates may have meant "Ten Cantons".
La Tène, (tribal confederation of four tribes).
Latobici /
Latovici[14] - not the same tribe as the
Latobrigi but they could have been related, they dwelt in areas of modern Slovenia and Western Hungary, west of the river
Danubius (Danube).
Vindelici – a tribal confederation, areas of modern Southern Germany (
Bavaria and
Baden-Württemberg), in the upper
Danube basin. May have been a confederation of mixed Celtic and Germanic tribes.
Volciani – may have been a tribe related to the
Volcae and not to the Hispano-Celts / Iberian Celts (i.e., the
Celts of the
Iberian Peninsula). Located north of the river
Iberus (Ebro), but not very precisely.
In the middle 3rd century BC,
Celts from the middle Danube valley, immigrated from
Thrace into the highlands of central
Anatolia (modern
Turkey), which was called
Galatia after that. These people, called
Galatians, a generic name for “Celts”, were eventually
Hellenized,[22][23] but retained many of their own traditions. They spoke
Galatian, a name derived from the generic name for “Celts”. Some closely fit the concept of a
tribe. Others are confederations or even unions of tribes.
Aedui /
Haedui -
Gaulish Celts largest tribal confederation, roughly in the geographical centre of Gaul and controlling important land, river, and trade routes
Gaesatae – Numbering c. 30,000, they participated in the
battle of Telamon[26] a group of mercenary Celtic warriors from several tribes of the western Alps slopes, not a tribe.
Possible Gaulish tribes
Galli (tribe) – along
Gallicus (
Gállego) river banks, see place names (toponyms) like Forum Gallorum,
Gallur, a different tribe from the
Suessetani; may have been a tribe related to the
Galli (
Gauls) and not to the Hispano-Celts / Iberian Celts. Some Gaulish tribes may have migrated southward and crossed the
Pyrenees (by the north, the central, or the south areas of the mountains) in a second or a third Celtic wave to the
Iberian Peninsula. These tribes were different from the Hispano-Celtic / Iberian Celtic tribes.
Cisalpine Gauls (
Celtae /
Galli Cisalpini) - They lived in Cisalpine Gaul, most of today's northern Italy. Multiple waves of population movements from France.[7] They spoke
Cisalpine Gaulish (a
Continental Celtic language of the
P Celtic type) closely related to
Gaulish or
Gallic. They lived in Cisalpine Gaul (Gallia Cisalpina), also called Gallia Citerior or Gallia Togata,[27] was the part of Italy continually inhabited by
Celts since the 13th century BC.[28] Conquered by the
Roman Republic in the 220s BC, it was a
Roman province from c. 81 BC until 42 BC, when it was merged into
Roman Italy.[29] Until that time, it was considered part of
Gaul, precisely that part of Gaul on the "hither side of the
Alps" (from the perspective of the
Romans), as opposed to
Transalpine Gaul ("on the far side of the Alps").[30]
Seven Gaulish tribes that according to
Livy settled in Cisalpine Gaul around 600 BC. Led by
Bellovesus, they defeated the
Etruscans at the
Ticino, settled in
Insubria and founded the city of
Mediolanum, the modern
Milan.[31] They were ancestors of Cisalpine Gauls.
May have been
Celtic tribes influenced by
Ligurians, heavily Celticized Ligurian tribes that shifted to a Celtic ethnolinguistic identity or mixed
Celtic-
Ligurian tribes. They dwelt in southeastern
Transalpine Gaul and northwestern
Cisalpine Gaul, mainly in the
Western Alps regions,
Rhodanus eastern basin and upper
Po river basin.
They lived in large parts of the
Iberian Peninsula, in the Northern, Central, and Western regions (half of the Peninsula's territory).
The
Celts in the
Iberian peninsula were traditionally thought of as living on the edge of the Celtic world of the
La Tène culture that defined classical
Iron Age Celts. Earlier migrations were
Hallstatt in culture and later came
La Tène influenced peoples. Celtic or (
Indo-European) Pre-Celtic cultures and populations existed in great numbers and Iberia experienced one of the highest levels of Celtic settlement in all of Europe. They dwelt in northern, central and western regions of the
Iberian Peninsula, but also in several southern regions.
They spoke
Celtic languages -
Hispano-Celtic languages which were of the
Q-Celtic type, more
conservativeCeltic languages.
Romans initially organized the Peninsula in two provinces (later in three):
Hispania Citerior ("Nearer Hispania", "Hispania that is Closer", from the perspective of the Romans), was a region of
Hispania during the
Roman Republic, roughly occupying the northeastern coast and the
Iberus (Ebro) Valley and later the eastern, central, northern and northwestern areas of the
Iberian peninsula in what would become the
TarraconensisRoman province (of what is now
Spain and northern
Portugal).
Hispania Ulterior ("Further Hispania", "Hispania that is Beyond", from the perspective of the Romans) was a region of
Hispania during the
Roman Republic, roughly located in what would become the
provinces of
Baetica (that included the
Baetis,
Guadalquivir, valley of modern Spain) and extending to all of
Lusitania (modern south and central Portugal,
Extremadura and a small part of
Salamanca province).
The
Roman province of
Hispania included both Celtic speaking and non-Celtic speaking tribes. Some closely fit the concept of a
tribe. Others are confederations or even unions of tribes.
Western Hispano-Celts were Celtic peoples and tribes that inhabited most of north and western Iberian Peninsula regions. They are often confused or taken as synonym of Celtiberians but, in fact, they were a distinct Celtic population that was most part of Iberian Peninsula Celtic populations. They spoke
Gallaecian (a
Continental Celtic language of the
Q Celtic type, a more
conservativeCeltic language) which was not
Celtiberian (
Celtic languages of
Iberian Peninsula are often lumped as
Hispano-Celtic).
Cantabri –
Cantabria, part of
Asturias and part of
Castile and León (Spain); some consider them not Celtic, may have been Pre-Celtic
Indo-European as could have been the
Lusitani and
Vettones[2]. If their language was not Celtic it may have been Para-Celtic like
Ligurian (i.e. an
Indo-European language branch not Celtic but more closely related to Celtic). A Tribal confederation.
Concani /
Gongani – two tribes of similar name (the Britannia
Gangani and Hibernia
Gangani) lived in
Britannia and
Hibernia, they could have been three branches of the same tribe, three related tribes with common ancestors or three different tribes that shared similar names.
Caristii /
Carietes – today's West
Basque Country, they may have been Celtic (see
Late Basquisation), they were later assimilated by the
Vascones in the 6th and 7th centuries
CE; Some consider them not Celtic, may have been a Pre-Celtic
Indo-European people as the
Lusitani and
Vettones could have been.
[3]. If their language was not Celtic it may have been Para-Celtic like
Ligurian (i.e. an
Indo-European language branch not Celtic but more closely related to Celtic).
Carpetani – Central
Iberian meseta (Spain), in the geographical centre of the
Iberian Peninsula, in a large part of today's
Castilla-La Mancha and
Madrid regions. A tribal confederation with 27 identified tribes.[32] (the name of these tribes is known today by archaeology discovery of their names in old stellae and not by mention of any known or survived works of Classical Antiquity authors)
Conii – according to some scholars,
Conii and
Cynetes were two different peoples or tribes and the names were not two different names of the same people or tribe; in this case, the Conii may have dwelt along the northern banks of the middle
Anas (Guadiana) river, in today's western
Extremadura region of Spain, and were a Celtici tribe wrongly confused with the
Cynetes of
Cyneticum (
Algarve) that dwelt from the west banks of the Low river
Anas (Guadiana) further to the south (the
celticization of the Cynetes by the Celtici confused the distinction between the two peoples or tribes).[33]
Saephes /
Saefes /
Sefes - people or tribe of the Celtici that has been identified as synonymous with the
Ophi or Serpent People (their land was called
Ophiussa), a people that migrated westward and conquered and expelled an older people known as the
Oestrymni or
Oestrimni (in a land that was called
Oestriminis).
Gallaeci or
Callaeci Proper, this tribe gave name to the larger tribal confederation of the same name (not the same tribe as the
Bracari) - roughly in today's
Porto District (Portuguese District = County) west of the
Tâmega.
Turodi /
Turodes – Trás-os-Montes (Portugal) and Galicia (Spain).
Cynetes –
Cyneticum (today's
Algarve region) and Low
Alentejo (Portugal); originally probably
Tartessians or similar, later celtized by the
Celtici; according to some scholars, Cynetes and Conii were two different peoples or tribes[33][4].
Vaccaei – North Central Iberian meseta (Spain), middle
Duero river basin. A tribal confederation.
Ptolemy mentions 20 vaccaean
Civitates (that also had the meaning of tribes)[34]
Other tribes (19 other tribes mentioned by
Ptolemy)
Varduli – today's East
Basque Country, they may have been Celtic (see
Late Basquisation), they were later assimilated by the
Vascones in the 6th and 7th centuries AD; Some consider them not Celtic, may have been a Pre-Celtic
Indo-European people as the
Lusitani and
Vettones could have been. If their language was not Celtic it may have been Para-Celtic like
Ligurian (i.e. an
Indo-European language branch not Celtic but more closely related to Celtic).
[5].
They spoke
Brittonic (an
Insular Celtic language of the
P Celtic type).
They lived in
Britannia, it was the name Romans gave, based on the name of the people: the
Britanni.
Some closely fit the concept of a
tribe but others are confederations or even unions of tribes.
Gangani (
Llŷn Peninsula,
Wales) - A tribe of the same name, the
Gangani (Ganganoi), lived in
Hibernia's southwestern coast, they could have been two branches of the same tribe, two related tribes with common ancestors or two different tribes that shared similar names. A tribe of similar name, the Gongani or Concani, was a tribe of the
Cantabri, they could have been another branch of the same tribe, related tribes with common ancestors or a different tribe that shared a similar name.
Autini (Aouteinoi - Auteinoi on the map, not the Greek spelling)
Brigantes (
Britons? A tribe of the same name lived in northern
Britannia or they could have been two different tribes that shared the same name)
Cauci (Καῦκοι, Kaukoi on the map) A tribe of the same name (
Chauci) lived in Northern
Germany or they could have been two different tribes that shared the same name.
Gangani (Ganganoi) (
Britons? A tribe of the same name lived in western
Britannia (today's northwestern Wales) they could have been two branches of the same tribe, two related tribes with common ancestors or two different tribes that shared similar names.
Iverni (Iouernoi - Iwernoi on the map, not the Greek spelling)
Manapii (Manapioi) (
Belgae? A tribe of similar name, the
Menapii, lived in the coast of
Belgica province or they could have been two different tribes that shared similar names)
Para-Celtic has the meaning that these peoples had common ancestors with the
Celts but were not Celts themselves (although they were later
Celticized and belong to a Celtic culture sphere of influence), they were not direct descendants from the
Proto-Celts.
They may in fact have been Proto-Celto-Italic, predating the
Celtic or
Italic languages and originated earlier from either
Proto-Celtic or
Proto-Italic populations who spread from
Central Europe into
Western Europe after new
Yamnaya migrations into the
Danube Valley.[36] Alternatively, a European branch of Indo-European dialects, termed "North-west Indo-European" and associated with the
Beaker culture, may have been ancestral to not only
Celtic and
Italic, but also to
Germanic and
Balto-Slavic.[36]
A people or a group of related tribes that dwelt in
Belgica, parts of
Britannia, and may have dwelt in parts of
Hibernia and also parts of
Hispania (large tribal confederation).
According to classical authors works, like Caesar's
De Bello Gallico,[25] they were a different people and spoke a different language (Ancient
Belgic) from the
Gauls and
Britons; they were clearly an Indo-European people and may have spoken a Celtic language. There is also the possibility that their language may have been a different language branch of Indo-European from the
Nordwestblock culture, which may have been intermediary between
Germanic and
Celtic, and might have been affiliated to
Italic (according to a
Maurits Gysseling hypothesis).
Menapii –
Cassel. A tribe of similar name, the
Manapii (Manapioi), lived in southeastern
Hibernia (modern Ireland) coast, they could have been two branches of the same tribe, two related tribes with common ancestors or two different tribes that shared similar names.
Suessetani - Far North Western
Aragon and Far South Eastern
Navarra (Spain), between the rivers Gallicus (
Gállego) and Low
Aragon, and between the river
Ebro and
Sierra de Santo Domingo mountains. Alba (Arba) river basin (a tributary of the
Ebro) was in the centre of their territory that also included the
Bardenas Reales. Corbio was their capital. They were north of the
Celtiberians, south of the
Iacetani and the
Vascones, west of the Galli (tribe). They were later conquered by the
Vascones in the 2nd Century B.C. which were allies of the
Romans. Could have been related to the
Suessiones (a tribe of the
Belgae).[38]
Northern Mediterranean Coast straddling South-east
French and North-west
Italian coasts, including far Northern and Northwestern
Tuscany and
Corsica. Because of the strong
Celtic influences on their language and culture, they were known already in antiquity as Celto-Ligurians (in Greek Κελτολίγυες, Keltolígues).[39] Very little is known about this language,
Ligurian (mainly place names and personal names remain) which is generally believed to have been Celtic or Para-Celtic;[40][41] (i.e. an
Indo-European language branch not Celtic but more closely related to Celtic). They spoke ancient
Ligurian.
Laevi – a Ligurian tribe that dwelt in the low river
Ticinus (Ticino), according to both Livy & Pliny.[42] According to Livy (v. 34), they took part in the expedition of Bellovesus into Italy in the 6th century BC
Lusitanians (
Lusitani/
Bellitani) –
Portugal south of the
Douro and north of the
Tagus, and northwestern
Extremadura (
Spain). They spoke
Lusitanian, a now extinct language which was clearly
Indo-European but the kinship of it as a
Celtic language is not surely proven (although many tribal names and place names, toponyms, are Celtic). Attempts to classify the language have also pointed at an
Italic origin[36] or some kinship to the
Nordwestblock culture language (
Ancient Belgian).[36] Hence
Lusitanian language may have been a Para-Celtic
Indo-European branch, like
Ligurian (i.e. an Indo-European language branch not Celtic but more closely related to Celtic). The Lusitanians have also been identified as being a pre-Celtic
Indo-European speaking culture of the
Iberian Peninsula closely related to the neighbouring
Vettones tribal confederation.[33] However, under their controversial theory of Celtic originating in Iberia, John T Koch and Barry Cunliffe have proposed a para-Celtic identity for the Lusitanian language and culture or that they spoke an archaic
Proto-Celtic language and were
Proto-Celtic in ethnicity.
Vettones –
Ávila and
Salamanca (Spain), may have been a Pre-Celtic
Indo-European people, closely related to the
Lusitani. If their language was not Celtic it may have been Para-Celtic like
Ligurian (i.e. an
Indo-European language branch not Celtic but more closely related to Celtic). A tribal confederation.
Today's Western
Andalusia (
Hispania Baetica), Baetis (
Guadalquivir) river valley and basin,
Marianus Mons (Sierra Morena), some consider them Celtic,[43] may have been Pre-Celtic
Indo-European people as the
Lusitani and
Vettones. If their language, called
Turdetanian or
Tartessian, was not Celtic it may have been Para-Celtic like
Ligurian (i.e. an
Indo-European language branch not Celtic but more closely related to Celtic). Also may have been a non-Indo-European people related to the
Iberians, but not the same people. A tribal confederation but with much more centralized power, may have formed an early form of
Kingdom or a Proto-civilisation (see
Tartessos)
They lived in Central
Alps, eastern parts of present-day Switzerland, the
Tyrol in Austria, and the Alpine regions of northern Italy. They spoke the
Rhaetian language. There is evidence that the non-Celtic (and
Pre-Indo-European) elements (see
Tyrsenian languages) had, by the time of Augustus, been assimilated by the influx of Celtic tribes and had adopted Celtic speech.[51] In addition, the abundance of Celtic toponyms and the complete absence of Etruscan place names in the Rhaetian territory leads to the conclusion that, by the time of Roman conquest, the Rhaetians were completely Celticized.[52][better source needed]
^
abIoana A. Oltean, Dacia: Landscape, Colonization and Romanization,
ISBN0-415-41252-8, 2007, p. 47.
^Andrea Faber, Körpergräber des 1.-3. Jahrhunderts in der römischen Welt: internationales Kolloquium, Frankfurt am Main, 19.-20. November 2004,
ISBN3-88270-501-9, p. 144.
^Géza Alföldy, Noricum, Tome 3 of History of the Provinces of the Roman Empire, 1974, p. 69.
^A. Mocsy and S. Frere, Pannonia and Upper Moesia. A History of the Middle Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire. p. 14.
^Pannonia. A History of the Middle Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire. p. 14.
^Frank W. Walbank, Polybius, Rome and the Hellenistic World: Essays and Reflections,
ISBN0-521-81208-9, 2002, p. 116: "... in A7P 60 (1939) 452 8, is not Antigonus Doson but barbarians from the mainland (either Thracians or Gauls from Tylis) (cf. Rostovizef and Welles (1940) 207-8, Rostovizef (1941) 111, 1645), nor has that inscription anything to do with the Cavan expedition. On ..."
^Velika Dautova-Ruševljan and Miroslav Vujović, Rimska vojska u Sremu, 2006, p. 131: "extended as far as Ruma whence continued the territory of another community named after the Celtic tribe of Cornacates"
^Ion Grumeza, Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe,
ISBN0-7618-4465-1, 2009, p. 51: "In a short time the Dacians imposed their conditions on the Anerati, Boii, Eravisci, Pannoni, Scordisci,"
^John T. Koch, Celtic culture: a historical encyclopedia,
ISBN1-85109-440-7, 2006, p. 907.
^
abJ. J. Wilkes, The Illyrians, 1992,
ISBN0-631-19807-5, p. 81: "In Roman Pannonia the Latobici and Varciani who dwelt east of the Venetic Catari in the upper Sava valley were Celtic but the Colapiani of ..."
^J. J. Wilkes, The Illyrians, 1992,
ISBN0-631-19807-5, p. 140: "... Autariatae at the expense of the Triballi until, as Strabo remarks, they in their turn were overcome by the Celtic Scordisci in the early third century"
^Population and economy of the eastern part of the Roman province of Dalmatia, 2002,
ISBN1-84171-440-2, p. 24: "the Dindari were a branch of the Scordisci"
^John Boardman, I. E. S. Edwards, E. Sollberger, and N. G. L. Hammond, The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 3, Part 2: The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and Other States of the Near East, from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries BC,
ISBN0-521-22717-8, 1992, p. 600: "In the place of the vanished Treres and Tilataei we find the Serdi for whom there is no evidence before the first century BC. It has for long been supposed on convincing linguistic and archeological grounds that this tribe was of Celtic origin"
^Dio Cassius, Earnest Cary, and Herbert B. Foster, Dio Cassius: Roman History, Vol. IX, Books 71–80 (Loeb Classical Library, No. 177), 1927, Index: "... 9, 337, 353 Seras, philosopher, condemned to death, 8. 361 Serdi, Thracian tribe defeated by M. Crassus, 6. 73 Seretium,""
^Dubravka Balen-Letunič, 40 godina arheoloških istraživanja u sjeverozapadnoj Hrvatskoj, 1986, p. 52: "and the Celtic Serretes"
^Alan Bowman, Edward Champlin, and
Andrew Lintott, The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. 10: The Augustan Empire, 43 BC-AD 69, 1996, p. 580: "... 580 I3h. DANUBIAN AND BALKAN PROVINCES Tricornenses of Tricornium (Ritopek) replaced the Celegeri, the Picensii of Pincum ..."
^William M. Ramsay, Historical Commentary on Galatians, 1997, p. 302: "... these adaptable Celts were Hellenized early. The term Gallograecia, compared with Themistius' (p. 360) Γαλατία ..."
^Roger D. Woodard, The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor, 2008, p. 72: "... The Phrygian elite (like the Galatian) was quickly Hellenized linguistically; the Phrygian tongue was devalued and found refuge only ..."
^
abcdefghijPrifysgol Cymru, University of Wales, A Detailed Map of Celtic Settlements in Galatia, Celtic Names and La Tène Material in Anatolia, the Eastern Balkans, and the Pontic Steppes.
^
abGallia est omnis divisa in partes tres, quarum unam incolunt Belgae, aliam Aquitani, tertiam qui ipsorum lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellantur.
Julius Caesar,
Commentarii de Bello Gallico, Book I, chapter 1
^
abcdeJorge de Alarcão, “Novas perspectivas sobre os Lusitanos (e outros mundos)”, in Revista portuguesa de Arqueologia, vol. IV, n° 2, 2001, p. 312 e segs.
^Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic culture: a historical encyclopedia (illustrated ed.). Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. pp. 198–200.
ISBN1-85109-440-7,
ISBN978-1-85109-440-0. ^ Jump up to: a b Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic culture: a historical encyclopedia (illustrated ed.). Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. pp. 224–225.
ISBN1-85109-440-7,
ISBN978-1-85109-440-0.
^The Osi's categorization as Celtic is disputed; see
Osi; also may have been a
Dacian or
Germanic tribe.
^Adrian Goldsworthy, How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower,
ISBN0-300-13719-2, 2009, p. 105: "... who had moved to the Hungarian Plain. Another tribe, the Bastarnae, may or may not have been Germanic. ..."
^Christopher Webber and Angus McBride, The Thracians 700 BC-AD 46 (Men-at-Arms),
ISBN1-84176-329-2, 2001, p. 12: "... never got near the main body of Roman infantry. The Bastarnae (either Celts or Germans), and `the bravest nation on earth' – Livy ..."
^Charles Anthon, A Classical Dictionary: Containing The Principal Proper Names Mentioned In Ancient Authors, Part One, 2005, p. 539: "... Tor, " elevated," " a mountain. (Strabo, 293)"; "the Iapodes (Strabo, 313), a Gallo-Illyrian race occupying the valleys of ..."
^J. J. Wilkes, The Illyrians, 1992,
ISBN0-631-19807-5, p. 79: "along with the evidence of name formulae, a Venetic element among the Japodes. A group of names identified by Alföldy as of Celtic origin: Ammida, Andes, Iaritus, Matera, Maxa,"
^J. J. Wilkes, Dalmatia, Tome 2 of History of the Provinces of the Roman Empire, 1969, pp. 154 and 482.
^Géza Alföldy, Noricum, Tome 3 of History of the Provinces of the Roman Empire, 1974, p. 24-5.
^Cowles Prichard, James (1841). Researches Into the Physical History of Mankind: 3, Volume 1. Sherwood, Gilbert and Piper. p. 240.
^Markey, Thomas (2008). Shared Symbolics, Genre Diffusion, Token Perception and Late Literacy in North-Western Europe. NOWELE.
Sims-Williams, Patrick. "The location of the Celts according to Hecataeus, Herodotus, and other Greek writers". In: Études Celtiques, vol. 42, 2016. pp. 7–32. [DOI:
https://doi.org/10.3406/ecelt.2016.2467]; [www.persee.fr/doc/ecelt_0373-1928_2016_num_42_1_2467]
https://dc.uwm.edu/ekeltoi/ - electronic Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies by the Center for Celtic Studies at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.
The
Madeira,
Azores, and
Canary Islands were not occupied by the
Romans. The Madeira and Azores islands were unoccupied until the
Portuguese in the 15th century; the Canary islands, the
Guanches occupied the territory until the Castilians.