Language family of indigenous peoples in South America
This article is about the Maipurean languages, or Arawakan proper. For the Araucanian language family spoken in the Patagonia, see
Araucanian languages.
Maipurean languages in South America (Caribbean and Central America not included): North-Maipurean (pale blue) and South-Maipurean (deeper blue). Spots represent location of extant languages, and shadowed areas show probable earlier locations.
Arawakan (Arahuacan, Maipuran Arawakan, "mainstream" Arawakan, Arawakan proper), also known as Maipurean (also Maipuran, Maipureano, Maipúre), is a
language family that developed among ancient
indigenous peoples in South America. Branches migrated to
Central America and the
Greater Antilles in the Caribbean and the Atlantic, including what is now the Bahamas. Almost all present-day South American countries are known to have been home to speakers of Arawakan languages, the exceptions being
Ecuador,
Uruguay, and
Chile. Maipurean may be related to other language families in a hypothetical
Macro-Arawakan stock.
Name
The name Maipure was given to the family by
Filippo S. Gilii in 1782, after the
Maipure language of
Venezuela, which he used as a basis of his comparisons. It was renamed after the culturally more important
Arawak language a century later. The term Arawak took over, until its use was extended by North American scholars to the broader
Macro-Arawakan proposal. At that time, the name Maipurean was resurrected for the core family. See
Arawakan vs Maipurean for details.
Dispersal
The Arawakan linguistic matrix hypothesis (ALMH)[1] suggests that the modern diversity of the Arawakan language family stems from the diversification of a
trade language or
lingua franca that was spoken throughout much of tropical lowland South America. Proponents of this hypothesis include Santos-Granero (2002)[2] and Eriksen (2014).[3] Eriksen (2014) proposes that the Arawakan family had only broken up after 600 CE, but Michael (2020) considers this to be unlikely, noting that Arawakan internal diversity is greater than that of the Romance languages.[1] On the other hand,
Blench (2015) suggests a demographic expansion that had taken place over a few thousand years, similar to the dispersals of the
Austronesian and
Austroasiatic language families in Southeast Asia.[4]
Classification of Maipurean is difficult because of the large number of Arawakan languages that are
extinct and poorly documented. However, apart from transparent relationships that might constitute single languages, several groups of Maipurean languages are generally accepted by scholars. Many classifications agree in dividing Maipurean into northern and southern branches, but perhaps not all languages fit into one or the other. The three classifications below are accepted by all:
An early contrast between Ta-Arawak and Nu-Arawak, depending on the prefix for "I", is spurious; nu- is the ancestral form for the entire family, and ta- is an innovation of one branch of the family.
Kaufman (1994)
The following (tentative) classification is from Kaufman (1994: 57-60). Details of established branches are given in the linked articles. In addition to the family tree detailed below, there are a few languages that are "Non-Maipurean Arawakan languages or too scantily known to classify" (Kaufman 1994: 58), which include these:
Including the unclassified languages mentioned above, the Maipurean family has about 64 languages. Out of them, 29 languages are now
extinct: Wainumá, Mariaté, Anauyá, Amarizana, Jumana, Pasé, Cawishana, Garú, Marawá, Guinao,
Yavitero, Maipure, Manao, Kariaí, Waraikú, Yabaána, Wiriná, Aruán, Taíno, Kalhíphona, Marawán-Karipurá, Saraveca, Custenau, Inapari, Kanamaré, Shebaye, Lapachu, and Morique.
Kaufman does not report the extinct
Magiana of the Moxos group.
Aikhenvald (1999)
Apart from minor decisions on whether a variety is a language or a dialect, changing names, and not addressing several poorly attested languages, Aikhenvald departs from Kaufman in breaking up the Southern Outlier and Western branches of Southern Maipurean. She assigns Salumã and Lapachu ('
Apolista') to what is left of Southern Outlier ('South Arawak'); breaks up the Maritime branch of Northern Maipurean, though keeping Aruán and Palikur together; and is agnostic about the sub-grouping of the North Amazonian branch of Northern Maipurean.
The following breakdown uses Aikhenvald's nomenclature followed by Kaufman's:
Maipurean
North Arawak = Northern Maipurean
Rio Branco = Kaufman's Wapishanan (2) [with Mapidian under the name "
Mawayana" and Mawakwa as a possible dialect]
Aikhenvald classifies Kaufman's unclassified languages apart from
Morique. She does not classify 15 extinct languages which Kaufman had placed in various branches of Maipurean.
Aikhenvald (1999:69) classifies
Mawayana with
Wapishana together under a Rio Branco branch, giving for Mawayana also the names "Mapidian" and "Mawakwa" (with some reservations for the latter).
Phonological innovations characterizing some of the branches:[7]
Maritime: loss of medial Proto-Arawakan *-n-.
Lokono-Wayuu: first person singular prefix *ta- replacing *nu-. Carvalho also reconstructs the suffix *-ja (possibly a deictic) and *kabɨnɨ 'three' as characteristic of this subgroup.
Campa:
lexical innovations such as *iNʧato 'tree', *-taki 'bark', *-toNki 'bone', etc. There are also typological innovations due to contact with Andean languages such as Quechua.
Ramirez (2020)
The internal classification of Arawakan by
Henri Ramirez (2020) is as follows.[8][9][10] This classification differs quite substantially from his previous classification (Ramirez 2001[6]), but is very similar to the one proposed by Jolkesky (2016).[5]
12 subgroups consisting of 56 languages (29 living and 27 extinct) (
† = extinct)
Below is a full list of Arawakan language varieties listed by
Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.[11]
Arawakan language varieties listed by
Loukotka (1968)
Island languages
Taino / Nitaino - once spoken in the Conquest days on the
Greater Antilles Islands of Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico and Jamaica. Dialects are:
Taino of Cuba - once spoken on the island of Cuba; in the nineteenth century only in the villages of
Jiguaní,
Bayano, and
Quivicán; now the last descendants speak only Spanish.
Borinquen - once spoken on the island of
Puerto Rico.
Wapishana / Matisana / Wapityan / Uapixana - spoken on the
Tacutu River,
Mahú River, and
Surumú River, territory of Rio Branco, Brazil, and in the adjoining region in Guyana.
Mapidian / Maotityan - spoken at the sources of the
Apiniwau River, Guyana, now perhaps extinct.
Mawakwa - once spoken on the
Mavaca River, Venezuela.
Goajira group
Goajira / Uáira - language spoken on the
Goajira Peninsula in Colombia and Venezuela with two dialects, Guimpejegual and Gopujegual.
Paraujano / Parancan / Parawogwan / Pará - spoken by a tribe of lake dwellers on
Lake Maracaibo, Zulia state, Venezuela.
Alile - once spoken on the
Guasape River, state of Zulia, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
Onota - once spoken between
Lake Maracaibo and the
Palmar River in the same region, Zulia state, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
Guanebucán - extinct language once spoken on the
Hacha River, department of Magdalena, Colombia. (Unattested.)
Cosina / Coquibacoa - extinct language of a little known tribe of the
Serranía Cosina,
Goajira Peninsula, Colombia. (Unattested.)
Caquetío group
Caquetío - extinct language once spoken on the islands of Curaçao and Aruba near the Venezuelan coast, on the
Yaracuy River,
Portuguesa River, and
Apure River, Venezuela. (only several words)
Ajagua - once spoken on the
Tocuyo River near
Carera, state of Lara, Venezuela. (only two words and patronyms.)
Quinó - once spoken in the village of Lagunillas, state of Mérida, Venezuela. (Nothing.)
Tororó / Auyama - once spoken in the village of San Cristóbal, state of Táchira. (Febres Cordero 1921, pp. 116–160 passim, only six words.)
Aviamo - once spoken on the
Uribante River, state of Táchira. (Unattested.)
Tecua - once spoken on the
Lengupa River and in the village of Teguas, department of Boyacá, Colombia. (Unattested.)
Yaguai - once spoken on the
Arichuna River, state of Apure, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
Cocaima - once spoken between the
Setenta River and
Matiyure River, state of Apure, Venezuela. (Unattested.)
Chacanta - once spoken on the
Mucuchachi River, state of Mérida. (Unattested.)
Caparo - once spoken on the
Caparo River, Santander, Colombia. (Unattested.)
Támud - once spoken northeast of the
Sagamoso River, Santander, Colombia. (Unattested.)
Burgua - once spoken near San Camilo on the
Burgua River, Santander, Colombia. (Unattested.)
Cuite - once spoken on the
Cuite River, Santander, Colombia. (Unattested.)
Queniquea - once spoken in the same hill region in Colombia on the
Pereno River. (Unattested.)
Chucuna - once spoken between the
Manacacías River and
Vichada River, territories of Meta and Vichada, Colombia. (Unattested.)
Yavitero / Pareni / Yavitano - spoken on the
Atabapo River in the village of Yavita.
Guinau group
Guinau / Inao / Guniare / Temomeyéme / Quinhau - once spoken at the sources of the
Caura River and
Merevari River, state of Bolívar, Venezuela, now perhaps extinct.
Baré group
Baré / Ihini / Arihini - spoken on the
Casiquiare River, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela, and on the upper course of the
Negro River, state of Amazonas, Brazil.
Uarequena - spoken on the
Guainía River, Vaupés territory, Colombia.
Adzáneni / Adyána / Izaneni - spoken at the sources of the
Caiarí River and on the
Apui River, frontier of Colombia and Brazil.
Carútana / Corecarú / Yauareté-tapuya - spoken on the frontier between Colombia and Brazil on the
Içana River.
Katapolítani / Acayaca / Cadaupuritani - spoken on the
Içana River in the village of Tunuhy, Brazil.
Siusí / Ualíperi-dákeni / Uereperidákeni - spoken on the lower course of the
Caiarí River and
Içana River and on the middle course of the
Aiari River, state of Amazonas, Brazil.
Moriwene / Sucuriyú-tapuya - spoken on the
Içana River in the village of
Seringa Upita, state of Amazonas, Brazil.
Hohodene / Huhúteni - spoken on the
Cubate River, state of Amazonas.
Maulieni / Káua-tapuya - spoken on the
Aiari River, state of Amazonas.
Ipéca group
Ipéca / Kumada-mínanei / Baniva de rio Içana - spoken on the
Içana River near the village of San Pedro, frontier region of Brazil and Colombia.
Payualiene / Payoariene / Pacu-tapuya - spoken in the same frontier region on the
Arara-paraná River.
Curipaco - spoken on the
Guainía River, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela.
Kárro - spoken in the territory of Amazonas on the
Puitana River.
Kapité-Mínanei / Coatí-tapuya - spoken at the sources of the
Içana River, Vaupés territory, Colombia.
Tariana group
Tariana / Yavi - spoken in the villages of
Ipanoré and
Yauareté on the
Caiarí River, Vaupés Territory, Colombia.
Iyäine / Kumandene / Yurupary-tapuya - spoken in the same region north of the Tariana tribe. Now only Tucano is spoken. (Unattested.)
Cauyari / Acaroa / Cabuyarí - once spoken on the
Cananari River and on the middle course of the
Apaporis River, territory of Amazonas, Colombia. Now perhaps extinct.
Arauaqui - extinct language once spoken between the
Negro River and
Uatuma River. A few descendants now speak only
Lingua Geral or Portuguese. (Unattested.)
Dapatarú - once spoken between the
Uatuma River and
Urubu River and on the island of
Saracá, Amazonas. (Unattested.)
Aniba - once spoken on the
Aniba River and around
Saracá lagoon. (Unattested.)
Caboquena - once spoken on the
Urubu River, Amazonas. (Unattested.)
Caburichena - once spoken on the right bank of the
Negro River. (Unattested.)
Resigaro / Rrah~nihin / Rosigaro - spoken by a few families on the
Igaraparaná River near Casa Arana.
Araicú group
Marawa / Maragua - spoken in the nineteenth century between the
Juruá River and
Jutai River, now in a single village at the mouth of the
Juruá River, Amazonas.
Araicú group
Araicú / Waraikú - extinct language once spoken at the sources of the
Jandiatuba River and on the right bank of the
Jutai River, Amazonas.
Uainumá group
Uainumá / Ajuano / Wainumá / Inabishana / Uainamby-tapuya / Uaypi - extinct language once spoken on the
Upi River, a tributary of the
Içá River, Amazonas.
Mariaté / Muriaté - extinct language once spoken at the mouth of the
Içá River.
Jumana group
Jumana / Shomana - extinct language once spoken on the
Puruê River and
Juami River, Amazonas state.
Passé / Pazé - extinct language once spoken between the
Negro River,
Japurá River, and
Içá River. The few descendants now speak only Portuguese.
Cauishana group
Cauishana / Kayuishana / Noll-hína - now spoken by a few families on the
Tocantins River and on
Lake Mapari, Amazonas.
Pariana - extinct language once spoken on the middle course of the
Marauiá River. (Unattested.)
Pre-Andine group
Campa / Anti / Atzíri / Thampa / Kuruparia - spoken on the
Urubamba River and
Ucayali River, department of Cuzco, Peru.
Uariteré - spoken on the
Pimenta Bueno River, territory of Rondônia. (Unattested.)
Chané group
Chané / Izoceño - formerly spoken on the
Itiyuro River, Salta province, Argentina, but now the tribe speaks only a language of the Tupi stock and the old language serves only for religious ceremonies. (only a few words.)
Caripurá / Karipuere - spoken in Amapá territory on the
Urucauá River.
Palicur / Parikurú - once spoken on the middle course of the
Calçoene River and on the upper course of the
Casipore River, now on the
Urucauá River in Amapá territory.
Caranariú - once spoken on the
Urucauá River, now extinct. (Unattested.)
Tocoyene - once spoken in Amapá territory on the
Uanarí River. (Unattested.)
Macapá - once spoken on the
Camopi River and
Yaroupi River, French Guiana, later on the upper course of the
Pará River, state of Pará, Brazil; now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
Tucujú - once spoken on the
Jarí River, territory of Amapá, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
Mapruan - once spoken on the
Oiac River, territory of Amapá. (Unattested.)
Aruan group
Aruan / Aroã - originally spoken on the north coast of
Marajó Island, Pará, later on the
Uaçá River, Amapá territory. A few descendants now speak only a French creole dialect.
Sacaca - extinct language once spoken in the eastern part of
Marajó Island.
Moríque group
Moríque / Mayoruna - spoken on the border of Brazil and Peru, on the
Javarí River.
Chicluna - extinct language once spoken in the same region east of the Aguano tribe. (Unattested.)
Aguano / Awáno - extinct language of a tribe that lived on the lower course of the
Huallaga River. The descendants, in the villages of San Lorenzo, San Xavier, and Santa Cruz, now speak only Quechua. (Unattested.)
Maparina - once spoken in the same region on the lower course of the
Ucayali River and at the old mission of Santiago. (Unattested.)
Cutinana - once spoken on the
Samiria River, Loreto. (Unattested.)
Tibilo - once spoken in San Lorenzo village, Loreto region. (Unattested.)
Lorenzo group
Amoishe / Amlsha / Amuescha / Amage / Lorenzo - once spoken on the
Paucartambo River and
Colorado River, department of Cuzco, Peru; now mainly Quechua is spoken.
Chunatahua - once spoken at the mouth of the
Chinchao River, department of Huánuco, Peru. (Unattested.)
Panatahua - spoken in the same region on the right bank of the
Huallaga River between
Coyumba and
Monzón, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.)
Chusco - once spoken in the same region as Panatahua near
Huánuco. (Unattested.)
Chumya / Bisanigua - language, now probably extinct, once spoken on the
Güejar River and in
El Piñal.
Guayabero / Guyaverun - spoken in the Meta territory on the
Guayabero River.
Arawakan vs. Maipurean
In 1783, the Italian priest
Filippo Salvatore Gilii recognized the unity of the
Maipure language of the Orinoco and
Moxos of Bolivia; he named their family Maipure. It was renamed Arawak by Von den Steinen (1886) and Brinten (1891) after
Arawak in the Guianas, one of the major languages of the family. The modern equivalents are Maipurean or Maipuran and Arawak or Arawakan.
The term Arawakan is now used in two senses. South American scholars use Aruák for
the family demonstrated by Gilij and subsequent linguists. In North America, however, scholars have used the term to include a hypothesis adding the
Guajiboan and
Arawan families. In North America, scholars use the name Maipurean to distinguish the core family, which is sometimes called core Arawak(an) or Arawak(an) proper instead.[12]
Kaufman (1990: 40) relates the following:
[The Arawakan] name is the one normally applied to what is here called Maipurean. Maipurean used to be thought to be a major subgroup of Arawakan, but all the living Arawakan languages, at least, seem to need to be subgrouped with languages already found within Maipurean as commonly defined. The sorting out of the labels Maipurean and Arawakan will have to await a more sophisticated classification of the languages in question than is possible at the present state of comparative studies.
Characteristics
The languages called Arawakan or Maipurean were originally recognized as a separate group in the late nineteenth century. Almost all the languages now called Arawakan share a first-person singular prefix nu-, but Arawak proper has ta-. Other commonalities include a second-person singular pi-, relative ka-, and negative ma-.
The Arawak language family, as constituted by L. Adam, at first by the name of Maypure, has been called by Von den Steinen "Nu-Arawak" from the prenominal prefix "nu-" for the first person. This is common to all the Arawak tribes scattered along the coasts from Suriname to Guyana.
Upper Paraguay has Arawakan-language tribes: the Quinquinaos, the Layanas, etc. (This is the Moho-Mbaure group of L. Quevedo). In the islands of Marajos, in the middle of the estuary of the Amazon, the Aruan people spoke an Arawak dialect. The Guajira Peninsula (north of
Venezuela) is occupied by the
Wayuu tribe, also Arawakan speakers. In 1890–95, De Brette estimated a population of 3,000 persons in the Guajira peninsula.[13]
C. H. de Goeje's published vocabulary of 1928 outlines the Lokono/Arawak (Suriname and Guyana) 1400 items, comprising mostly morphemes (stems, affixes) and morpheme partials (single sounds), and only rarely compounded, derived, or otherwise complex sequences; and from Nancy P. Hickerson's British Guiana manuscript vocabulary of 500 items. However, most entries which reflect acculturation are direct borrowings from one or another of three model languages (Spanish, Dutch, English). Of the 1400 entries in de Goeje, 106 reflect European contact; 98 of these are loans. Nouns which occur with the verbalizing suffix described above number 9 out of the 98 loans.[14]
Phonology
Though a great deal of variation can be found from language to language, the following is a general composite statement of the consonants and vowels typically found in Arawak languages, according to Aikhenvald (1999):
For more detailed notes on specific languages see Aikhenvald (1999) pp. 76–77.
Shared morphological traits
General morphological type
Arawakan languages are polysynthetic and mostly head-marking. They have fairly complex verb morphology. Noun morphology is much less complex and tends to be similar across the family. Arawakan languages are mostly suffixing, with just a few prefixes.[15]
Alienable and inalienable possession
Arawakan languages tend to distinguish alienable and inalienable possession. A feature found throughout the Arawakan family is a suffix (whose reconstructed Proto-Arawakan form is /*-tsi/) that allows the inalienable (and obligatorily possessed) body-part nouns to remain unpossessed.[16] This suffix essentially converts inalienable body-part nouns into alienable nouns. It can only be added to body-part nouns and not to kinship nouns (which are also treated as inalienable). An example from the Pareci language is given below:[16]
no-tiho
1SG-face
no-tiho
1SG-face
my face
tiho-ti
face-
ALIEN
tiho-ti
face-ALIEN
(someone's) face
Classifiers
Many Arawakan languages have a system of classifier morphemes that mark the semantic category of the head noun of a noun phrase on most other elements of the noun phrase.[17] The example below is from the Tariana language, in which classifier suffixes mark the semantic category of the head noun on all elements of a noun phrase other than the head noun (including adjectives, numerals, demonstratives, possessives) and on the verb of the clause:
‘This one big hospital of theirs has been made of wood’
Subject and object cross-referencing on the verb
Most Arawakan languages have split-intransitive alignment systems of subject and object cross-referencing on the verb.[18] The agentive arguments of both transitive and intransitive verbs are marked with prefixes, whereas the patientive arguments of both transitive and intransitive verbs are marked with suffixes. The following example from Baniwa of Içana shows a typical Arawakan split-intransitive alignment:[19]
ri-kapa-ni
3SG.
NFEM.
AG-see-
3SG.
NFEM.
PAT
ri-kapa-ni
3SG.NFEM.AG-see-3SG.NFEM.PAT
'He sees him/it.'
ri-emhani
3SG.
NFEM.
AG-walk
ri-emhani
3SG.NFEM.AG-walk
'He walks.'
hape-ka-ni
be.cold-
DECL-
3SG.
NFEM.
PAT
hape-ka-ni
be.cold-DECL-3SG.NFEM.PAT
'He/it is cold.'
The prefixes and suffixes used for subject and object cross-referencing on the verb are stable throughout the Arawakan languages, and can therefore be reconstructed for Proto-Arawakan. The table below shows the likely forms of Proto-Arawakan:[20]
Prefixes (mark agent)
Suffixes (mark patient)
person
SG
PL
SG
PL
1
*nu- or *ta-
*wa-
*-na, *-te
*-wa
2
*(p)i-
*(h)i-
*-pi
*-hi
3NFEM
*ri-, *i-
*na-
*-ri, *-i
*-na
3FEM
*thu-, *u-
*na-
*-thu, *-u
*-na
impersonal
*pa-
non-focused agent
*i-, *a-
dummy patient
*-ni
Some examples
The Arawak word for maize is marisi, and various forms of this word are found among the related languages:
Arawak-speaking peoples migrated to islands in the Caribbean some 2,500 years ago,[22] settling the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas. It is possible that some poorly attested extinct languages in North America, such as the languages of the
Cusabo and
Congaree in South Carolina, were members of this family.[23]
Taíno, commonly called Island Arawak, was spoken on the islands of
Cuba,
Dominican Republic,
Haiti,
Puerto Rico,
Jamaica, and the
Bahamas. A few Taino words are still used by
English,
Spanish, or
Haitian Creole-speaking descendants in these islands. The Taíno language was scantily attested but its classification within the Arawakan family is uncontroversial. Its closest relative among the better attested Arawakan languages seems to be the
Wayuu language, spoken in Colombia and Venezuela. Scholars have suggested that the Wayuu are descended from Taíno
refugees, but the theory seems impossible to prove or disprove.[citation needed]
Garífuna (or Black Carib) is another Arawakan language originating on the islands. It developed as the result of forced migration among people of mixed Arawak, Carib, and African descent.[24] It is estimated to have about 195,800 speakers in
Honduras,
Nicaragua,
Guatemala and
Belize combined.[25]
Today the Arawakan languages with the most speakers are among the more recent Ta-Arawakan (Ta-Maipurean) groups:
Wayuu [Goajiro], with about 300,000 speakers; and
Garifuna, with about 100,000 speakers. The Campa group is next;
Asháninca or Campa proper has 15–18,000 speakers; and Ashéninca 18–25,000. After that probably comes
Terêna, with 10,000 speakers; and
Yanesha' [Amuesha] with 6–8,000.[citation needed]
Vocabulary
Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items for the Arawakan languages.[11]
Language
Branch
one
two
three
head
eye
hand
foot
Amoishe
Lorenzo
pachía
epá
mapá
yo-ói
net
n-not
Guahibo
Guahibo
kaí
nahuaxu
akuoíebi
pe-matána
pe-wánto
pi-tahúto
Churuya
Guahibo
kai
kabale
omopesiva
Guayabero
Guahibo
kayen
magneten
buán
fuʔuten
Marawan
Marawan
paxa
tsálie
mpána
pi-tiui
pi-taibi
pu-aku
Caripurá
Marawan
pabereː
yaná
pána
i-tiuti
pi-taibi
pu-áko
Palicur
Marawan
phát
pitána
mpána
teuti
i-teibi
i-wak-ti
Aruan
Aruan
auseire
dekuráma
nkeduke
p-küue
pe-xinháku
pe-aynáu
Moríque
Moríque
akápastoi
shikará
shika-bená
p-dóko
p-dái
pi-ó
Chamicuro
Chamicuro
padláka
maʔa póxta
kídlko
o-káski
ax-chái
u-chíxpa
Waurá
Waurá
pauá
mepiáua
kamaukula
nu-teurzata
nu-titái
nu-kapi
Mehináku
Waurá
pauítsa
mepiáma
kamayukule
nu-tau
nu-titái
nu-kapu
Kustenau
Waurá
paúdza
mepiáma
kamaukula
nu-téu
nu-titái
ni-uríko
Yaulapíti
Waurá
pauá
purziñama
kamayunkula
nu-kurzyu
nu-ritä
nu-irika
Sarave
Paresí
atia
iñama
anahama
no-eve
no-he
aui-kachi
Paresí
Paresí
hatita
inamá
anamá
no-seurí
nu-dúse
nu-kau
Waimare
Paresí
hakida
hiːnamaː
hanámaː
no-tseːri
nu-zoːtse
nu-kahe
Chané
Chané
Guaná
Chané
posha
piá
mopoá
do-otí
u-ké
u-oú
Terena
Chané
paisuan
piá
mopuá
do-otí
u-né
u-oú
Quiniquinao
Apolista
poikuá
piá
mopuá
do-otí
u-nhé
w-oú
Lapachu
Apolista
eto
api
mopo
ya-tuni
hua-nia
Mojo
Mojo
ikapia
apisá
impúse
nu-xuti
yu-ki
nu-bupe
Baure
Mojo
ni-póã
i-kise
nu-ake
Pauna
Mojo
i-huike
Paicone
Mojo
ponotsiko
baniki
i-pe
ni-kis
i-vuaki
Ipurina
Ipurina
hatiká
ipíka
mapáka
i-kiwi
o-kí
oa-kutí
Campa
Preandine I
apáro
apíti
máhua
a-ito
a-oki
a-kó
Machiganga
Preandine I
pániro
api
mahuani
no-yito
no-ki
nä-ko
Chanchamayo
Preandine I
kipachi
nu-china
o-eki
a-eu
Quirineri
Preandine I
aparu
piti
mana
pi-hita
po-ke
Maneteneri
Preandine I
Piro
Preandine I
sape
epi
mapa
we-iwé
xali
hue-mio
Chontaquiro
Preandine I
suriti
apíri
nokiri
hue-xixua
we-ari
hua-mianuta
Inapari
Preandine II
Kushichineri
Preandine II
sátepia
hépi
u-shiwe
no-yate
nó-min
Cuniba
Preandine II
yi-hwö
wi-bere
wö-miu
Kanamaré
Preandine II
satibika
hepü
mapa
nu-xüi
nu-xü
nu-muyú
Huachipairi
Preandine II
ruña
gundupa
ya-kuk
Mashco
Preandine II
ruña
gundupa
Uainumá
Uainumá
apágeri
macháma
matsüke
ba-ita
no-tóhi
no-gápi
Mariaté
Uainumá
apakeri
mechema
atapo
no-bida
no-doi
no-ghapi
Jumana
Jumana
aphla
liágua
mabäʔagua
n-úla
un-ló
no-gabí
Passé
Jumana
apeala
pakéana
mapeana
ni-óla
chi-ló
nu-ghapóle
Cauishana
Cauishana
bälämo
mätalá
bämä bikaka
na-oá
nó-ló
na-gúbi
Yukúna
Yukúna
paxlúasa
hiamá
uesikiéle
nu-ilá
nux-lú
no-yola
Guarú
Yukúna
pagluachima
xeyama
uzíkele
yatela-chima
Resigaro
Resigaro
apaːhapené
eytzaːmo
eitzaːmoapo
whe-bühe
wa-tnih
waː-kí
Marawa
Marawa
ukvashumu
piá
ghebeñ
ni-siuy
na-kosi
no-kabesui
Araicú
Araicú
etetu
puyabana
mayba
ghi
no-ki
ni-kabu
Manáo
Manáo
panimu
piarukuma
pialukipaulo
nu-küuna
nu-kurika
nu-kaité
Cariay
Manáo
nyoi
püthairama
tükahui
nu-küuy
nu-kuniki
nu-ghai
Uirina
Uirina
shishi-kaba
na-kuke
li-kaue
Yabaána
Uirina
fuiu-dagu
ná-ui
nu-khapi
Anauya
Uirina
ahiari
mahoren
marahunaka
nun-huída
nau-hini
nun-kapi
Chiriána
Chiriána
nu-kiwída
nu-ái
nu-nái
Ipéca
Ipéca
apáda
yamada
madarida
nú-wida
nu-tí
nu-kápi
Payualiene
Ipéca
apádacha
yamáda
madalída
nu-wida
nu-thí
nu-kápí
Curipaco
Ipéca
ápe
yamáde
madálda
lyi-wida
nó-ti
h'no-kápi
Kárro
Ipéca
pádda
yamádda
madaridda
húida
nó-ti
no-kápi
Kapitémínaneí
Ipéca
aphépai
yamhépa
madelipa
ni-wirechipa
nú-ti
nu-kápi
Tariana
Tariana
páda
yamáite
mandalite
pax-huída
pa-tída
kopi-vana
Cauyari
Tariana
no-üte
no-tu
nu-kapi
Baré
Baré I
bakunákali
pekúname
klikúname
hua-dósie
hua-oíti
hua-kabi
Uarequena
Baré I
apáhesa
dauntása
nabaitalísa
nó-iua
nó-bui
no-kapi
Adzáneni
Baré I
apékutsa
dzámana
mandalípa
nu-wída
nu-thi
nu-kapi
Carútana
Baré I
aʔapetsa
ntsáme
mádali
nú-ita
nu-thi
no-kopü
Katapolítani
Baré I
apadátsa
dzamáta
mádali
ní-wida
au-thí
nu-kápi
Siusí
Baré II
apaíta
dzamá
mandalíapa
ni-uíta
nú-ti
nu-kapi
Moriwene
Baré II
apáda
zamáda
madálida
n-iwida
nu-thí
nu-kapi
Mapanai
Baré II
páda
dzamáda
madalída
ni-wída
nu-tí
nu-kápi
Hohodene
Baré II
apáda
dzamhépa
mandalhípa
hi-wída
nu-thi
nu-kápi
Máulieni
Baré II
apahede
dzamáde
madalíde
nhe-wída
nu-thi
nu-kápi
Achagua
Caquetio
abai
chamay
matavi
nú-rita
nu-tói
nu-kuhe
Piapoco
Caquetio
abéri
putsíba
maísiba
nú-wita
nu-tui
nu-kapi
Amarizana
Caquetio
nu-ita
no-tuy
nu-kagi
Maypure
Maypure
papeta
apanum
apekiva
nu-kibukú
nu-puriki
nu-kapi
Baníva
Baníva
peyaːlo
enaːba
yabébuli
no-bóhu
na-bólihi
naː-bipo
Yavitero
Baníva
hasiáua
tsináha
nu-síhu
na-hólitsi
no-kabuhi
Guinau
Guinau
abamédzya
abiamáka
in-chéue
na-uízyi
n-kábi
Wapishána
Central
bayadap
yaitam
dikinerda
aita-ma
ung-wawin
kai
Atorai
Central
petaghpa
pauitegh
ihikeitaub
uruei
na-win
un-kei
Mapidian
Mapidian
chioñi
asagu
dikiñerda
un-ku
un-oso
un-chigya
Mawakwa
Mapidian
apaura
woaraka
tamarsa
un-kaua
ng-oso
ng-nkowa
Goajira
Goajira
wanee
piama
apünüin
te-kii
to-'u
ta-japü
to-o'ui
Paraujano
Goajira
mánei
pími
apáni
tó-ki
tá-i
táp
Taino
Island
zimu
aku
u-gúti
T. Cusa
Island
Caliponam-Eyeri
Island
aban
biama
ishöké
áku
nu-kabo
nu-guti
Arawak West
Guiana
aba
biama
da-shi
da-kusi
ue-babuhu
da-kosai
Arawak East
Guiana
da-shi
da-kushi
da-kapo
da-kuti
Language
Branch
water
fire
sun
maize
house
tapir
bird
Amoishe
Lorenzo
óñ
tsó
yumpór
trop
bakü
atók
Guahibo
Guahibo
méra
isóto
ikatia
hetsóto
bó
métsaha
Churuya
Guahibo
minta
ixito
mshaxaint
xesá
Guayabero
Guahibo
minta
giptan
hes
baːh
mesa
Marawan
Marawan
uni
tiketi
kamui
paiti
oldogri
Caripurá
Marawan
oneː
tiketí
kamuí
maikí
paití
arudeika
Palicur
Marawan
úne
tikéti
kamoí
mahikí
paitipin
aludpikli
Aruan
Aruan
unü
díha
hámo
údi
müle
Moríque
Moríque
ón
ashkómi
ñóki
náshi
anár
háwuits
Chamicuro
Chamicuro
uníxsa
káxchi
mosóxko
náchi
axkóchi
maxtódli
Waurá
Waurá
une
itséi
kame
máiki
pae
täme
Mehináku
Waurá
óne
tsé
kame
máiki
pai
täme
Kustenau
Waurá
one
tséi
xámi
maikí
pae
täme
Yaulapíti
Waurá
u
zyro
káme
máiki
pa
tsama
Sarave
Paresí
une
rikiai
káʔane
kozeheo
kuti
Paresí
Paresí
óni
irikati
kámai
kózoto
hati
kótui
Waimare
Paresí
uné
irigate
kamái
kozeːtoː
haːtí
koːtuí
Chané
Chané
úne
yuku
sopóro
Guaná
Chané
une
yukú
kaché
tsoporo
petí
kamó
Terena
Chané
une
yukú
kaché
soporó
ovongu
gamó
Quiniquinao
Apolista
uné
yukú
kadzyé
osopóro
péti
Lapachu
Apolista
chani
yuó
íti
tái
pina
yáma
Mojo
Mojo
uni
yuku
sáche
suru
nupena
samo
Baure
Mojo
ine
yaki
pari
sóhmo
choro
Pauna
Mojo
ené
yukĩ
sache
sese
Paicone
Mojo
ina
shaki
isésé
tiolo
Ipurina
Ipurina
wünü
chaminá
atokantí
kemi
aikó
kíamá
Campa
Preandine I
naña
chichi
tawánti
sínki
pangótsi
kemáli
Machiganga
Preandine I
nía
chichi
buriente
sinki
imbako
kemari
Chanchamayo
Preandine I
niya
paneni
pahuasi
siinki
panguchik
Quirineri
Preandine I
nixa
pishironta
shantoshi
shinki
pangocha
Maneteneri
Preandine I
húni
ashi
kashi
is
xama
Piro
Preandine I
une
chichi
kachi
sixi
panchi
siema
Chontaquiro
Preandine I
uné
chichi
kachi
sizyi
panchi
siemo
Inapari
Preandine II
uni
titi
takuati
chema
Kushichineri
Preandine II
une
titi
takachi
shihi
panti
sema
Cuniba
Preandine II
uné
titi
tʔkati
chihi
panti
hyema
Kanamaré
Preandine II
wenü
ghasirü
shishie
panichi
nuyeshuata
Huachipairi
Preandine II
tak
sinka
Mashco
Preandine II
ne
abati
kichäpo
siema
Uainumá
Uainumá
auni
icheba
ghamui
pexkia
panísi
äma
Mariaté
Uainumá
uni
ichepa
gamui
pékye
panisi
zema
Jumana
Jumana
uhú
oyé
sömanlú
irari
pana
zema
Passé
Jumana
oy
heghüe
aguma
niari
pána
séma
Cauishana
Cauishana
auví
ikiö
mawoaká
mási
banö
sema
Yukúna
Yukúna
úni
tsiá
kamú
kaéru
pási
emam
Guarú
Yukúna
kaʔamu
Resigaro
Resigaro
hoːní
ketse
hahi
weheːx
adnoːhoki
Marawa
Marawa
uni
irisi
kumétu
uati
kakoaka
gama
Araicú
Araicú
uni
ighé
ghuma
mechi
peyʔ
Manáo
Manáo
unua
ghügati
gamuy
auati
nuanu
ghema
Cariay
Manáo
toni
apai
ghamui
yuanati
nuána
ghema
Uirina
Uirina
une
yishe
kamoé
auati
bakué
kamá
Yabaána
Uirina
úni
ikági
Anauya
Uirina
uni
ríkari
ahiri
Chiriána
Chiriána
úni
pái
áyer
makanáu
páinti
kéma
Ipéca
Ipéca
úni
tiyé
körzyi
kána
pánthi
hema
Payualiene
Ipéca
úni
tüye
hözi
kána
pánti
héma
Curipaco
Ipéca
óni
notapíkata
héri
héma
Kárro
Ipéca
óni
tie
hérsi
Kapitémínaneí
Ipéca
úuni
tíye
höri
kána
pánti
héma
Tariana
Tariana
úni
chiána
kéri
kána
pánishi
héma
Cauyari
Tariana
uni
hirari
eri
panetí
emá
Baré
Baré I
óni
gaméni
ghamú
makanashi
páni
tema
Uarequena
Baré I
óni
ixsíde
kamói
makanáshi
panízi
éma
Adzáneni
Baré I
úni
dzídze
gámui
kána
pánte
héma
Carútana
Baré I
úni
tídzye
kámui
makanáchi
pánishi
héma
Katapolítani
Baré I
úni
tídze
gamui
kána
pánti
héma
Siusí
Baré II
úni
tídze
gámui
kána
pánti
héma
Moriwene
Baré II
uni
tidzé
kamui
kána
pánti
héma
Mapanai
Baré II
úni
tiidzé
kamói
kána
panti
hema
Hohodene
Baré II
úni
tidze
kámui
kána
panti
héma
Máulieni
Baré II
úni
tídze
kámoi
kána
panítsi
héma
Achagua
Caquetio
uni
chichái
erri
kana
banísi
ema
Piapoco
Caquetio
úni
kichéi
éri
kanái
kapí
éma
Amarizana
Caquetio
sietai
eriepi
keybin
kaxü
Maypure
Maypure
ueni
kati
kamosi
dzyomuki
panití
Baníva
Baníva
wéni
aːshi
amoːshi
makanátsi
paníshi
eːma
Yavitero
Baníva
wéni
káthi
kámothi
kána
fanisi
ema
Guinau
Guinau
úne
chéke
gamũhũ
yúnu
báni
zéma
Wapishána
Central
wéne
tiker
kamo
marik
kaburn
kudui
Atorai
Central
win
tikir
kamu
Mapidian
Mapidian
win
hikesia
mariki
kudui
Mawakwa
Mapidian
wune
chikasi
kamu
Goajira
Goajira
wüin
siki
ka'i
maiki
m/piichi
kama
wuchii
Paraujano
Goajira
wín
chigigá
kakai
mái
xála
Taino
Island
ama
kuyo
boinial
maiz
bohio
bogiael
T. Cusa
Island
kochi
maysi
bohio
ipis
Caliponam-Eyeri
Island
one
iléme
káshi
tuhonoko
narguti
Arawak West
Guiana
vuniabu
iki
hadali
marisi
bahü
kudibiu
Arawak East
Guiana
wúini
hikiki
hadali
baʔache
Proto-language
Proto-Arawakan
Reconstruction of
Arawakan languages
Proto-Arawak reconstructions by Aikhenvald (2002):[26]
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Payne, D. L. (1991). A classification of Maipuran (Arawakian) languages based on shared lexical retentions. In: D. C. Derbyshire & G. K. Pullun (orgs.), Handbook of Amazonian languages, 355-499. The Hague: Mouton.
Ramirez, H. (2001a). Dicionário Baniwa-Portugues. Manaus: Universidade do Amazonas.
Ramirez, H. (2001b). Línguas Arawak da Amazônia Setentrional. Manaus: EDUA.
Shaver, H. (1996). Diccionario nomatsiguenga-castellano, castellano-nomatsiguenga (Serie Linguística Peruana, 41). Pucallpa: Ministerio de Educación & Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Snell, B. (1973). Pequeño diccionario machiguenga-castellano. Yarinacocha: SIL.
Solís, G.; Snell, B. E. (2005). Tata onkantakera niagantsipage anianeegiku (Diccionario escolar Machiguenga). Lima, Perú: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Souza, I. (2008). Koenukunoe emo'u: A língua dos índios Kinikinau. Universidade Estadual de Campinas. (Doctoral dissertation).
Trevor R. A. (1979). Vocabulario Resígaro (Documento de Trabajo, 16). Yarinacocha: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Tripp, M. D. (1998). Diccionario Yanesha' (Amuesha)-Castellano. (Serie Lingüística Peruana, 47). Lima: Ministerio de Educación / Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Wapishana Language Project. (2000). Scholars's dictionary and grammar of the Wapishana language. Porto Velho: SIL International.
Durbin, M.; Seijas, H. (1973). A Note on Panche, Pijao, Pantagora (Palenque), Colima and Muzo. International Journal of American Linguistics, 39:47-51.
Data sets
Thiago Costa Chacon. (2018, November 27). CLDF dataset derived from Chacon et al.'s "Diversity of Arawakan Languages" from 2019 (Version v1.0.1). Zenodo.
doi:
10.5281/zenodo.1564336
Thiago Costa Chacon. (2018). CLDF dataset derived from Chacon's "Arawakan and Tukanoan contacts in Northwest Amazonia prehistory" from 2017 (Version v1.1) [Data set]. Zenodo.
doi:
10.5281/zenodo.1322713
Thiago Costa Chacon. (2018). CLDF dataset derived from Chacon's "Annotated Swadesh Lists for Arawakan Languages" from 2017 (Version v1.0.1) [Data set]. Zenodo.
doi:
10.5281/zenodo.1318200
Reconstructions
Matteson, Esther (1972). "Proto Arawakan". In Matteson, Esther (ed.). Comparative Studies in Amerindian Languages. Mouton. pp. 160–242.
Noble, G. Kingsley (1965). Proto-Arawakan and its descendants. Publications of the Indiana University Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics. Vol. 38. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
OCLC344482.
Valenti, Donna Marie (1986). A Reconstruction of the Proto-Arawakan Consonantal System (PhD thesis). New York University.