In contrast, a
heuristic is an approach to problem solving that may not be fully specified or may not guarantee correct or optimal results, especially in problem domains where there is no well-defined correct or optimal result.[3] For example, social media
recommender systems rely on heuristics in such a way that, although widely characterized as "algorithms" in 21st century popular media, cannot deliver correct results due to the nature of the problem.
As an
effective method, an algorithm can be expressed within a finite amount of space and time[4] and in a well-defined
formal language[5] for calculating a
function.[6] Starting from an initial state and initial input (perhaps
empty),[7] the instructions describe a computation that, when
executed, proceeds through a finite[8] number of well-defined successive states, eventually producing "output"[9] and terminating at a final ending state. The transition from one state to the next is not necessarily
deterministic; some algorithms, known as
randomized algorithms, incorporate random input.[10]
Etymology
Around 825, Persian scientist and polymath
Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī wrote kitāb al-ḥisāb al-hindī ("Book of Indian computation") and kitab al-jam' wa'l-tafriq al-ḥisāb al-hindī ("Addition and subtraction in Indian arithmetic"). Both of these texts are lost in the original Arabic at this time. (However, his
other book on algebra remains.)[1]
In the early 12th century, Latin translations of said al-Khwarizmi texts involving the
Hindu–Arabic numeral system and
arithmetic appeared: Liber Alghoarismi de practica arismetrice (attributed to
John of Seville) and Liber Algorismi de numero Indorum (attributed to
Adelard of Bath).[2] Hereby, alghoarismi or algorismi is the
Latinization of Al-Khwarizmi's name; the text starts with the phrase Dixit Algorismi ("Thus spoke Al-Khwarizmi").[3]
Around 1230, the English word algorism is attested and then by
Chaucer in 1391, English adopted the French term.[4][5][clarification needed] In the 15th century, under the influence of the Greek word ἀριθμός (arithmos, "number"; cf. "arithmetic"), the Latin word was altered to algorithmus.[citation needed]
Definition
For a detailed presentation of the various points of view on the definition of "algorithm", see
Algorithm characterizations.
One informal definition is "a set of rules that precisely defines a sequence of operations",[11][need quotation to verify] which would include all
computer programs (including programs that do not perform numeric calculations), and (for example) any prescribed
bureaucratic procedure[12]
or
cook-bookrecipe.[13] In general, a program is an algorithm only if it stops eventually[14]—even though
infinite loops may sometimes prove desirable.
Boolos, Jeffrey & 1974, 1999 define an algorithm to be a set of instructions for determining an output, given explicitly, in a form that can be followed by either a computing machine, or a human who could only carry out specific elementary operations on symbols.[15]
The concept of algorithm is also used to define the notion of
decidability—a notion that is central for explaining how
formal systems come into being starting from a small set of
axioms and rules. In
logic, the time that an algorithm requires to complete cannot be measured, as it is not apparently related to the customary physical dimension. From such uncertainties, that characterize ongoing work, stems the unavailability of a definition of algorithm that suits both concrete (in some sense) and abstract usage of the term.
This section is missing information about 20th and 21st century development of computer algorithms. Please expand the section to include this information. Further details may exist on the
talk page.(October 2023)
Bolter credits the invention of the weight-driven
clock as "The key invention [of Europe in the Middle Ages]", in particular, the
verge escapement[24] that provides us with the tick and tock of a mechanical clock. "The accurate automatic machine"[25] led immediately to "mechanical
automata" beginning in the 13th century and finally to "computational machines"—the
difference engine and
analytical engines of
Charles Babbage and Countess
Ada Lovelace, mid-19th century.[26] Lovelace is credited with the first creation of an algorithm intended for processing on a computer—Babbage's analytical engine, the first device considered a real
Turing-complete computer instead of just a
calculator—and is sometimes called "history's first programmer" as a result, though a full implementation of Babbage's second device would not be realized until decades after her lifetime.
Electromechanical relay
Bell and Newell (1971) indicate that the
Jacquard loom (1801), precursor to
Hollerith cards (punch cards, 1887), and "telephone switching technologies" were the roots of a tree leading to the development of the first computers.[27] By the mid-19th century the
telegraph, the precursor of the telephone, was in use throughout the world, its discrete and distinguishable encoding of letters as "dots and dashes" a common sound. By the late 19th century the
ticker tape (
c. 1870s) was in use, as was the use of Hollerith cards in the 1890 U.S. census. Then came the
teleprinter (
c. 1910) with its punched-paper use of
Baudot code on tape.
Telephone-switching networks of electromechanical
relays (invented 1835) was behind the work of
George Stibitz (1937), the inventor of the digital adding device. As he worked in Bell Laboratories, he observed the "burdensome' use of mechanical calculators with gears. "He went home one evening in 1937 intending to test his idea... When the tinkering was over, Stibitz had constructed a binary adding device".[28] The mathematician
Martin Davis supported the particular importance of the electromechanical relay.[29]
Algorithm design refers to a method or a mathematical process for problem-solving and engineering algorithms. The design of algorithms is part of many solution theories, such as
divide-and-conquer or
dynamic programming within
operation research. Techniques for designing and implementing algorithm designs are also called algorithm design patterns,[32] with examples including the template method pattern and the decorator pattern. One of the most important aspects of algorithm design is resource (run-time, memory usage) efficiency; the
big O notation is used to describe e.g., an algorithm's run-time growth as the size of its input increases.[citation needed]
Structured programming
Per the
Church–Turing thesis, any algorithm can be computed by a model known to be
Turing complete. In fact, it has been demonstrated that Turing completeness requires only four instruction types—conditional GOTO, unconditional GOTO, assignment, HALT. However, Kemeny and Kurtz observe that, while "undisciplined" use of unconditional GOTOs and conditional IF-THEN GOTOs can result in "
spaghetti code", a programmer can write structured programs using only these instructions; on the other hand "it is also possible, and not too hard, to write badly structured programs in a structured language".[33] Tausworthe augments the three
Böhm-Jacopini canonical structures:[34] SEQUENCE, IF-THEN-ELSE, and WHILE-DO, with two more: DO-WHILE and CASE.[35] An additional benefit of a structured program is that it lends itself to
proofs of correctness using
mathematical induction.[36]
Algorithms, by themselves, are not usually patentable. In the United States, a claim consisting solely of simple manipulations of abstract concepts, numbers, or signals does not constitute "processes" (USPTO 2006), so algorithms are not patentable (as in
Gottschalk v. Benson). However practical applications of algorithms are sometimes patentable. For example, in
Diamond v. Diehr, the application of a simple
feedback algorithm to aid in the curing of
synthetic rubber was deemed patentable. The
patenting of software is controversial,[37] and there are criticized patents involving algorithms, especially
data compression algorithms, such as
Unisys's
LZW patent. Additionally, some cryptographic algorithms have export restrictions (see
export of cryptography).
Representations
Algorithms can be expressed in many kinds of notation, including
natural languages,
pseudocode,
flowcharts,
drakon-charts,
programming languages or
control tables (processed by
interpreters). Natural language expressions of algorithms tend to be verbose and ambiguous and are rarely used for complex or technical algorithms. Pseudocode, flowcharts, drakon-charts and control tables are structured ways to express algorithms that avoid many of the ambiguities common in statements based on natural language. Programming languages are primarily intended for expressing algorithms in a form that can be executed by a computer, but they are also often used as a way to define or document algorithms.
Turing machines
There is a wide variety of representations possible and one can express a given
Turing machine program as a sequence of machine tables (see
finite-state machine,
state-transition table and
control table for more), as flowcharts and drakon-charts (see
state diagram for more), or as a form of rudimentary
machine code or
assembly code called "sets of quadruples" (see
Turing machine for more). Representations of algorithms can also be classified into three accepted levels of Turing machine description: high level description, implementation description, and formal description.[38] A high level description describes qualities of the algorithm itself, ignoring how it is implemented on the turing machine.[38] An implementation description describes the general manner in which the turing machine moves its head and stores data in order to carry out the algorithm, but doesn't give exact states.[38] In the most detail, a formal description gives the exact state table and list of transitions of the turing machine.[38]
Flowchart representation
The graphical aid called a
flowchart offers a way to describe and document an algorithm (and a computer program corresponding to it). Like the program flow of a Minsky machine, a flowchart always starts at the top of a page and proceeds down. Its primary symbols are only four: the directed arrow showing program flow, the rectangle (SEQUENCE, GOTO), the diamond (IF-THEN-ELSE), and the dot (OR-tie). The Böhm–Jacopini canonical structures are made of these primitive shapes. Sub-structures can "nest" in rectangles, but only if a single exit occurs from the superstructure. The symbols and their use to build the canonical structures are shown in the diagram.[39]
It is frequently important to know how much of a particular resource (such as time or storage) is theoretically required for a given algorithm. Methods have been developed for the analysis of algorithms to obtain such quantitative answers (estimates); for example, an algorithm which adds up the elements of a list of n numbers would have a time requirement of , using
big O notation. At all times the algorithm only needs to remember two values: the sum of all the elements so far, and its current position in the input list. Therefore, it is said to have a space requirement of , if the space required to store the input numbers is not counted, or if it is counted.
Different algorithms may complete the same task with a different set of instructions in less or more time, space, or '
effort' than others. For example, a
binary search algorithm (with cost ) outperforms a sequential search (cost ) when used for
table lookups on sorted lists or arrays.
The
analysis, and study of algorithms is a discipline of
computer science, and is often practiced abstractly without the use of a specific
programming language or implementation. In this sense, algorithm analysis resembles other mathematical disciplines in that it focuses on the underlying properties of the algorithm and not on the specifics of any particular implementation. Usually
pseudocode is used for analysis as it is the simplest and most general representation. However, ultimately, most algorithms are usually implemented on particular hardware/software platforms and their
algorithmic efficiency is eventually put to the test using real code. For the solution of a "one off" problem, the efficiency of a particular algorithm may not have significant consequences (unless n is extremely large) but for algorithms designed for fast interactive, commercial or long life scientific usage it may be critical. Scaling from small n to large n frequently exposes inefficient algorithms that are otherwise benign.
Empirical testing is useful because it may uncover unexpected interactions that affect performance.
Benchmarks may be used to compare before/after potential improvements to an algorithm after program optimization.
Empirical tests cannot replace formal analysis, though, and are not trivial to perform in a fair manner.[40]
To illustrate the potential improvements possible even in well-established algorithms, a recent significant innovation, relating to
FFT algorithms (used heavily in the field of image processing), can decrease processing time up to 1,000 times for applications like medical imaging.[41] In general, speed improvements depend on special properties of the problem, which are very common in practical applications.[42] Speedups of this magnitude enable computing devices that make extensive use of image processing (like digital cameras and medical equipment) to consume less power.
Classification
There are various ways to classify algorithms, each with its own merits.
By implementation
One way to classify algorithms is by implementation means.
Recursive
C implementation of Euclid's algorithm from the
above flowchart
Recursion
A
recursive algorithm is one that invokes (makes reference to) itself repeatedly until a certain condition (also known as termination condition) matches, which is a method common to
functional programming.
Iterative algorithms use repetitive constructs like
loops and sometimes additional data structures like
stacks to solve the given problems. Some problems are naturally suited for one implementation or the other. For example,
towers of Hanoi is well understood using recursive implementation. Every recursive version has an equivalent (but possibly more or less complex) iterative version, and vice versa.
Serial, parallel or distributed
Algorithms are usually discussed with the assumption that computers execute one instruction of an algorithm at a time. Those computers are sometimes called serial computers. An
algorithm designed for such an environment is called a serial algorithm, as opposed to
parallel algorithms or
distributed algorithms. Parallel algorithms are algorithms that take advantage of computer architectures where multiple processors can work on a problem at the same time. Distributed algorithms are algorithms that use multiple machines connected with a computer network. Parallel and distributed algorithms divide the problem into more symmetrical or asymmetrical subproblems and collect the results back together. For example, a CPU would be an example of a parallel algorithm. The resource consumption in such algorithms is not only processor cycles on each processor but also the communication overhead between the processors. Some sorting algorithms can be parallelized efficiently, but their communication overhead is expensive. Iterative algorithms are generally parallelizable, but some problems have no parallel algorithms and are called inherently serial problems.
While many algorithms reach an exact solution,
approximation algorithms seek an approximation that is closer to the true solution. The approximation can be reached by either using a deterministic or a random strategy. Such algorithms have practical value for many hard problems. One of the examples of an approximate algorithm is the
Knapsack problem, where there is a set of given items. Its goal is to pack the knapsack to get the maximum total value. Each item has some weight and some value. Total weight that can be carried is no more than some fixed number X. So, the solution must consider weights of items as well as their value.[43]
Another way of classifying algorithms is by their design methodology or
paradigm. There is a certain number of paradigms, each different from the other. Furthermore, each of these categories includes many different types of algorithms. Some common paradigms are:
Brute force is a method of problem-solving that involves systematically trying every possible option until the optimal solution is found. This approach can be very time consuming, as it requires going through every possible combination of variables. However, it is often used when other methods are not available or too complex. Brute force can be used to solve a variety of problems, including finding the shortest path between two points and cracking passwords.
Divide and conquer
A
divide-and-conquer algorithm repeatedly reduces an instance of a problem to one or more smaller instances of the same problem (usually
recursively) until the instances are small enough to solve easily. One such example of divide and conquer is
merge sorting. Sorting can be done on each segment of data after dividing data into segments and sorting of entire data can be obtained in the conquer phase by merging the segments. A simpler variant of divide and conquer is called a decrease-and-conquer algorithm, which solves an identical subproblem and uses the solution of this subproblem to solve the bigger problem. Divide and conquer divides the problem into multiple subproblems and so the conquer stage is more complex than decrease and conquer algorithms. An example of a decrease and conquer algorithm is the
binary search algorithm.
Such algorithms make some choices randomly (or pseudo-randomly). They can be very useful in finding approximate solutions for problems where finding exact solutions can be impractical (see heuristic method below). For some of these problems, it is known that the fastest approximations must involve some
randomness.[44] Whether randomized algorithms with
polynomial time complexity can be the fastest algorithms for some problems is an open question known as the
P versus NP problem. There are two large classes of such algorithms:
This technique involves solving a difficult problem by transforming it into a better-known problem for which we have (hopefully)
asymptotically optimal algorithms. The goal is to find a reducing algorithm whose
complexity is not dominated by the resulting reduced algorithm's. For example, one
selection algorithm for finding the median in an unsorted list involves first sorting the list (the expensive portion) and then pulling out the middle element in the sorted list (the cheap portion). This technique is also known as transform and conquer.
In this approach, multiple solutions are built incrementally and abandoned when it is determined that they cannot lead to a valid full solution.
Optimization problems
For
optimization problems there is a more specific classification of algorithms; an algorithm for such problems may fall into one or more of the general categories described above as well as into one of the following:
When searching for optimal solutions to a linear function bound to linear equality and inequality constraints, the constraints of the problem can be used directly in producing the optimal solutions. There are algorithms that can solve any problem in this category, such as the popular
simplex algorithm.[45] Problems that can be solved with linear programming include the
maximum flow problem for directed graphs. If a problem additionally requires that one or more of the unknowns must be an
integer then it is classified in
integer programming. A linear programming algorithm can solve such a problem if it can be proved that all restrictions for integer values are superficial, i.e., the solutions satisfy these restrictions anyway. In the general case, a specialized algorithm or an algorithm that finds approximate solutions is used, depending on the difficulty of the problem.
When a problem shows
optimal substructures—meaning the optimal solution to a problem can be constructed from optimal solutions to subproblems—and
overlapping subproblems, meaning the same subproblems are used to solve many different problem instances, a quicker approach called dynamic programming avoids recomputing solutions that have already been computed. For example,
Floyd–Warshall algorithm, the shortest path to a goal from a vertex in a weighted
graph can be found by using the shortest path to the goal from all adjacent vertices. Dynamic programming and
memoization go together. The main difference between dynamic programming and divide and conquer is that subproblems are more or less independent in divide and conquer, whereas subproblems overlap in dynamic programming. The difference between dynamic programming and straightforward recursion is in caching or memoization of recursive calls. When subproblems are independent and there is no repetition, memoization does not help; hence dynamic programming is not a solution for all complex problems. By using memoization or maintaining a
table of subproblems already solved, dynamic programming reduces the exponential nature of many problems to polynomial complexity.
The greedy method
A
greedy algorithm is similar to a dynamic programming algorithm in that it works by examining substructures, in this case not of the problem but of a given solution. Such algorithms start with some solution, which may be given or have been constructed in some way, and improve it by making small modifications. For some problems they can find the optimal solution while for others they stop at
local optima, that is, at solutions that cannot be improved by the algorithm but are not optimum. The most popular use of greedy algorithms is for finding the minimal spanning tree where finding the optimal solution is possible with this method.
Huffman Tree,
Kruskal,
Prim,
Sollin are greedy algorithms that can solve this optimization problem.
The heuristic method
In
optimization problems,
heuristic algorithms can be used to find a solution close to the optimal solution in cases where finding the optimal solution is impractical. These algorithms work by getting closer and closer to the optimal solution as they progress. In principle, if run for an infinite amount of time, they will find the optimal solution. Their merit is that they can find a solution very close to the optimal solution in a relatively short time. Such algorithms include
local search,
tabu search,
simulated annealing, and
genetic algorithms. Some of them, like simulated annealing, are non-deterministic algorithms while others, like tabu search, are deterministic. When a bound on the error of the non-optimal solution is known, the algorithm is further categorized as an
approximation algorithm.
Fields tend to overlap with each other, and algorithm advances in one field may improve those of other, sometimes completely unrelated, fields. For example, dynamic programming was invented for optimization of resource consumption in industry but is now used in solving a broad range of problems in many fields.
Algorithms can be classified by the amount of time they need to complete compared to their input size:
Constant time: if the time needed by the algorithm is the same, regardless of the input size. E.g. an access to an
array element.
Logarithmic time: if the time is a logarithmic function of the input size. E.g.
binary search algorithm.
Linear time: if the time is proportional to the input size. E.g. the traverse of a list.
Polynomial time: if the time is a power of the input size. E.g. the
bubble sort algorithm has quadratic time complexity.
Exponential time: if the time is an exponential function of the input size. E.g.
Brute-force search.
Some problems may have multiple algorithms of differing complexity, while other problems might have no algorithms or no known efficient algorithms. There are also mappings from some problems to other problems. Owing to this, it was found to be more suitable to classify the problems themselves instead of the algorithms into equivalence classes based on the complexity of the best possible algorithms for them.
Continuous algorithms
The adjective "continuous" when applied to the word "algorithm" can mean:
An algorithm operating on data that represents continuous quantities, even though this data is represented by discrete approximations—such algorithms are studied in
numerical analysis; or
One of the simplest algorithms is to find the largest number in a list of numbers of random order. Finding the solution requires looking at every number in the list. From this follows a simple algorithm, which can be stated in a high-level description in English prose, as:
High-level description:
If there are no numbers in the set, then there is no highest number.
Assume the first number in the set is the largest number in the set.
For each remaining number in the set: if this number is larger than the current largest number, consider this number to be the largest number in the set.
When there are no numbers left in the set to iterate over, consider the current largest number to be the largest number of the set.
(Quasi-)formal description:
Written in prose but much closer to the high-level language of a computer program, the following is the more formal coding of the algorithm in
pseudocode or
pidgin code:
Algorithm LargestNumber
Input: A list of numbers L.
Output: The largest number in the list L.
ifL.size = 0 return null
largest ← L[0]
for eachiteminL, doifitem > largest, thenlargest ← itemreturnlargest
"←" denotes
assignment. For instance, "largest ← item" means that the value of largest changes to the value of item.
"return" terminates the algorithm and outputs the following value.
^
ab"Definition of ALGORITHM". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary.
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abBlair, Ann, Duguid, Paul, Goeing, Anja-Silvia and Grafton, Anthony. Information: A Historical Companion, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2021. p. 247
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abDavid A. Grossman, Ophir Frieder, Information Retrieval: Algorithms and Heuristics, 2nd edition, 2004,
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^
abWell defined with respect to the agent that executes the algorithm: "There is a computing agent, usually human, which can react to the instructions and carry out the computations" (Rogers 1987:2).
^"an algorithm is a procedure for computing a function (with respect to some chosen notation for integers) ... this limitation (to numerical functions) results in no loss of generality", (Rogers 1987:1).
^"An algorithm has
zero or more inputs, i.e.,
quantities which are given to it initially before the algorithm begins" (Knuth 1973:5).
^"A procedure which has all the characteristics of an algorithm except that it possibly lacks finiteness may be called a 'computational method'" (Knuth 1973:5).
^"An algorithm has one or more outputs, i.e. quantities which have a specified relation to the inputs" (Knuth 1973:5).
^Whether or not a process with random interior processes (not including the input) is an algorithm is debatable. Rogers opines that: "a computation is carried out in a discrete stepwise fashion, without the use of continuous methods or analogue devices ... carried forward deterministically, without resort to random methods or devices, e.g., dice" (Rogers 1987:2).
^Simanowski, Roberto (2018).
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JSTOR2371045. Reprinted in The Undecidable, p. 89ff. The first expression of "Church's Thesis". See in particular page 100 (The Undecidable) where he defines the notion of "effective calculability" in terms of "an algorithm", and he uses the word "terminates", etc.
Church, Alonzo (1936). "A Note on the Entscheidungsproblem". The Journal of Symbolic Logic. 1 (1): 40–41.
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S2CID5557237. Reprinted in The Undecidable, p. 110ff. Church shows that the Entscheidungsproblem is unsolvable in about 3 pages of text and 3 pages of footnotes.
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JSTOR1990131. Reprinted in The Undecidable, p. 255ff. Kleene refined his definition of "general recursion" and proceeded in his chapter "12. Algorithmic theories" to posit "Thesis I" (p. 274); he would later repeat this thesis (in Kleene 1952:300) and name it "Church's Thesis"(Kleene 1952:317) (i.e., the
Church thesis).
A.A. Markov (1954) Theory of algorithms. [Translated by Jacques J. Schorr-Kon and PST staff] Imprint Moscow, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1954 [i.e., Jerusalem, Israel Program for Scientific Translations, 1961; available from the Office of Technical Services, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington] Description 444 p. 28 cm. Added t.p. in Russian Translation of Works of the Mathematical Institute, Academy of Sciences of the USSR, v. 42. Original title: Teoriya algerifmov. [QA248.M2943 Dartmouth College library. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Office of Technical Services, number OTS 60-51085.]
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Church–Turing thesis.
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S2CID39499392. Reprinted in The Undecidable, p. 223ff. Herein is Rosser's famous definition of "effective method": "...a method each step of which is precisely predetermined and which is certain to produce the answer in a finite number of steps... a machine which will then solve any problem of the set with no human intervention beyond inserting the question and (later) reading the answer" (p. 225–226, The Undecidable)
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ISBN978-0-07-061726-1. Cf. in particular the first chapter titled: Algorithms, Turing Machines, and Programs. His succinct informal definition: "...any sequence of instructions that can be obeyed by a robot, is called an algorithm" (p. 4).
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