Akhvakh_language References

Akhvakh
Akhvakh
Ашвaлъи мицIи
Native to	North Caucasus, Azerbaijan
Region	Southern Dagestan, northern Azerbaijan
Ethnicity	Akhvakh
Native speakers	210 in Dagestan (2010 census)
Language family	Northeast Caucasian Avar–Andic Andic Akhvakh–Tindi Akhvakh; ; ; ;
Language codes
ISO 639-3	akv
Glottolog	akhv1240 Akhvakhic
ELP	Akhvakh

The Akhvakh language (also spelled Axvax, Akhwakh) is a Northeast Caucasian language from the Avar–Andic branch. Ethnologue lists 210 speakers based on the 2010 census,^[1] but Magomedova and Abulaeva (2007) list 20,000 speakers of the language. Akhvakh has several dialects, though sources do not agree on the number. Ethnologue lists Kaxib, Northern Akhvakh and Southern Akhvakh (which can be further subdivided into the Tlyanub and Tsegob subdialects^[2]). Creissels (2010) lists Northern Akhvakh and three dialects of Southern Akhvakh (Cegob, Tljanub, and Ratlub).

A few publications have been made in the Akhvakh language^{[
citation needed]}, but for the most part speakers of Akhvakh have adopted Avar as their literary language.

Phonology

Consonants

Consonant phonemes of Akhvakh^[3]
		Labial	Dental			Alveolar				Palatal	Velar		Uvular		Pharyngeal	Glottal
			Dental			central		lateral			Velar		Uvular
			lenis	sib.	fortis	lenis	fortis	lenis	fortis		lenis	fortis	lenis	fortis
Nasal		m	n
Plosive/ Affricate	voiced	b	d			d͡ʒ					ɡ		( ɢ͡ʁ)
	voiceless	p	t	t͡s	t͡sː	t͡ʃ	t͡ʃː	t͡ɬ	t͡ɬː		k	kː	q͡χ	q͡χː		ʔ
	ejective	pʼ	tʼ	t͡sʼ	t͡sːʼ	t͡ʃʼ	t͡ʃːʼ	t͡ɬʼ	t͡ɬːʼ		kʼ	kːʼ	q͡χʼ	q͡χːʼ
Fricative	voiceless			s	sː	ʃ	ʃː	ɬ	ɬː	ç	x	xː			ħ/ ʜ ^[1]	h
Fricative	voiced	v		z		ʒ					ɣ				ʕ/ ʢ ^[1]
Trill						r
Approximant								l		j

As with Avar, there are competing analyses of the distinction transcribed in the table with the length sign ⟨ː⟩. Length is part of the distinction, but so is articulatory strength, so they have been analyzed as fortis and lenis.^[4] The fortis affricates are long in the fricative part of the contour, e.g. [tsː] (tss), not in the stop part as in geminate affricates in languages such as Japanese and Italian [tːs] (tts). Laver (1994) analyzes e.g. t͡ɬː as a two-segment affricate–fricative sequence /t͡ɬɬ/ (/t𐞛ɬ/ = /t^ɬɬ/).^[5]

Vowels

Akhvakh has a standard five-vowel system /i e a o u/ with distinctive vowel length.^[4]

Grammar

Agreement classes

Akhvakh has three agreement classes. In the singular, these are human masculine, human feminine, and non-human. In the plural, there are only two—human plural and non-human plural. Akhvakh verbs agree with the absolutive argument (subject of an intransitive or object of a transitive.)

Consider the following examples, which show the general principles. In the first example, the intransitive verb 'run' shows feminine agreement because its subject, 'girl', is feminine. In the second example, the transitive verb 'cook' shows neuter agreement because its object, 'meat', is neuter.^[6]

Jaše-∅

girl- ABS

q:'eɬ:-a

home- LAT

j-et-e

FEM-run- CVB: FEM

j-i:ni

FEM-go: IPFV

'The girl ran home.'

Ak:'o-de

wife- ERG

riɬ:'i

meat

b-iž-e

N-eat- CVB: N

q:'-e:ni.

eat- IPFV

'The wife cooked the meat and ate it.'

Note that in the second example, 'wife' is in the ergative case and appears to be the subject of both the verbs 'cook' and 'eat', but neither verb shows feminine agreement.

Cases

Akhvakh has an ergative-absolutive case-marking system. As the following examples (repeated from above) show, the transitive subject has the ergative case, while an intransitive subject has absolutive case. Absolutive case is not overtly marked by a suffix, but the noun phrase with absolutive case controls agreement on the verb: