The 11th century is the period from 1001 (represented by the
Roman numerals MI) through 1100 (MC) in accordance with the
Julian calendar, and the 1st century of the
2nd millennium.
In the
history of Europe, this period is considered the early part of the
High Middle Ages. There was, after a brief ascendancy, a sudden decline of
Byzantine power and a rise of
Norman domination over much of Europe, along with the prominent role in
Europe of notably influential
popes.
Christendom experienced a formal schism in this century which had been developing over previous centuries between the Latin West and Byzantine East, causing a split in its two largest denominations to this day:
Roman Catholicism and
Eastern Orthodoxy.
In European history, the 11th century is regarded as the beginning of the
High Middle Ages, an age subsequent to the
Early Middle Ages. The century began while the translatio imperii of
962 was still somewhat novel and ended in the midst of the
Investiture Controversy. It saw the final Christianisation of
Scandinavia and the emergence of the
Peace and Truce of God movements, the
Gregorian Reforms, and the
Crusades which revitalised a church and a papacy that had survived tarnished by the tumultuous 10th century. In 1054, the
Great Schism saw the political and religious culmination and a formal split between the Western and Eastern church.
In
Germany, the century was marked by the ascendancy of the
Holy Roman Emperors, who hit their high-water mark under the
Salians. In Britain, it saw the transformation of
Scotland into a single, more unified and centralised kingdom and the
Norman conquest of England in 1066. The social transformations wrought in these lands brought them into the fuller orbit of European feudal politics. In France, it saw the nadir of the monarchy and the zenith of the great magnates, especially the dukes of Aquitaine and Normandy, who could thus foster such distinctive contributions of their lands as the pious warrior who conquered Britain, Italy, and the East and the impious peacelover, the
troubadour, who crafted out of the European vernacular its first great literary themes. There were also the first figures of the intellectual movement known as
Scholasticism, which emphasized
dialectic arguments in disputes of
Christian theology as well as
classical philosophy.
In
Italy, the century began with the integration of the kingdom into the Holy Roman Empire and the royal palace at
Pavia was summoned in 1024. By the end of the century,
Lombard and
Byzantine rule in the
Mezzogiorno had been usurped by the
Normans and the power of the territorial magnates was being replaced by that of the citizens of the northern cities. In
Northern Italy, a growth of population in urban centers gave rise to an early organized
capitalism and more sophisticated, commercialized culture by the late 11th century, most notably in Venice. In Spain, the century opened with the successes of the last
caliphs of Córdoba and ended in the successes of the
Almoravids. In between was a period of Christian unification under
Navarrese hegemony and success in the
Reconquista against the
taifa kingdoms that replaced the fallen caliphate. In Eastern Europe, there was a
golden age for the principality of
Kievan Rus.
In China, there was a triangular affair of continued war and peace settlements between the
Song dynasty, the
Tanguts-led
Western Xia in the northwest, and the
Khitans of the
Liao dynasty in the northeast. Meanwhile, opposing
political factions evolved at the Song imperial court of
Kaifeng. The political reformers at court, called the New Policies Group (新法, Xin Fa), were led by
Emperor Shenzong of Song and the
ChancellorsFan Zhongyan and
Wang Anshi, while the political conservatives were led by Chancellor
Sima Guang and Empress Dowager Gao, regent of the young
Emperor Zhezong of Song. Heated political debate and sectarian intrigue followed, while political enemies were often dismissed from the capital to govern frontier regions in the deep south where
malaria was known to be very fatal to northern Chinese people (see
History of the Song dynasty). This period also represents a high point in classical Chinese science and technology, with figures such as
Su Song and
Shen Kuo, as well as the age where the matured form of the
Chinese pagoda was accomplished in
Chinese architecture.
In Japan, the
Fujiwara clan dominated central politics by acting as imperial regents, controlling the actions of the
Emperor of Japan, who acted merely as a '
puppet monarch' during the
Heian period. In Korea, the rulers of the
Goryeo Kingdom were able to concentrate more central authority into their own hands than in that of the nobles, and were able to fend off two
Khitan invasions with their armies.
In the Middle East, the
Fatimid Empire of
Egypt reached its zenith only to face steep decline, much like the
Byzantine Empire in the first half of the century. The
Seljuks came to prominence while the
Abbasid caliphs held traditional titles without real, tangible authority in state affairs.
In Southeast Asia, the
Pagan Kingdom reached its height of political and military power. The
Khmer Empire would dominate in Mainland Southeast Asia while
Srivijaya would dominate Maritime Southeast Asia. Further east, the
Kingdom of Butuan, centered on the northern portion of
Mindanao island flourished as the dominant trading polity in the archipelago. In
Vietnam, the
Lý dynasty began, which would reach its golden era during the 11th century.
1001 ± 40 years:
Baitoushan volcano on what would be the Chinese-Korean border, erupts with a force of 6.5, the fourth largest
Holocene blast.
1001: The ancient kingdom of
Butuan, through its King, Rajah Kiling, made contact with the Chinese,
Song dynasty recorded the first appearance of Butuan tributary mission through Lijehan and Jiaminan at the Chinese Imperial Court on March 17, 1001 AD.
1007:
Butuan king, Rajah Kiling through the ambassador I-hsu-han sent a formal memorial on
Song dynasty Imperial court requesting equal status with
Champa but the request was denied on the grounds that "Butuan is beneath Champa." due to Champa being an older tributary state since the 4th century.
1010–1011: The
Second Goryeo-Khitan War; the
Korean king is forced to flee the capital temporarily, but is unable to establish a foothold and fearing a counterattack, the
Khitan forces withdrew.
1011: Under a new
Rajah named Sri Bata Shaja,
Butuan finally succeeded in attaining diplomatic equality with
Champa after being denied in an older request made 4 years earlier to the
Song dynasty court by sending the flamboyant ambassador Likanhsieh.
1021: the ruling
Fatimid Caliph
Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah disappears suddenly, possibly assassinated by his own sister
Sitt al-Mulk, which leads to the open persecution of the
Druze by
IsmailiShia; the Druze proclaim that Al-Hakim went into hiding (ghayba), whereupon he would return as the
Mahdi savior.
1025: the
Chola dynasty of India uses its naval powers to conquer the South East Asian kingdom of
Srivijaya, turning it into a
vassal.
1025:
Rajendra Chola, the
Chola king from
Cholamandala in South India, conquers Pannai and
Kadaram from Srivijaya and occupies it for some time. The Cholas continue a series of raids and conquests of parts Srivijayan empire in Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula.[4]
1028: the King of
Srivijaya appeals to the
Song dynasty Chinese, sending a diplomatic mission to their capital at
Kaifeng.
1030: the
Battle of Stiklestad (
Norway):
Olav Haraldsson loses to his pagan vassals and is killed in the battle. He is later canonized and becomes the patron saint of Norway and Rex perpetuum Norvegiae ('the eternal king of Norway').
1030:
Sanghyang Tapak inscription in the Cicatih River bank in Cibadak, Sukabumi, West Java, mentioned about the establishment of sacred forest and
Kingdom of Sunda. (to 1579)
1043: the Song dynasty
Chancellor of China,
Fan Zhongyan, and prominent official and historian
Ouyang Xiu introduce the
Qingli Reforms, which would be rescinded by the court in 1045 due to partisan resistance to reforms.
1044: the Chinese Wujing Zongyao, written by Zeng Gongliang and Yang Weide, is the first book to describe
gunpowder formulas;[7] it also described their use in warfare, such as
blackpowder-impregnated
fuses for
flamethrowers.[8] It also described an early form of the
compass, a thermoremanence compass.[9]
1054: the
Great Schism, in which the Western (
Roman Catholic) and
Eastern Orthodox churches separated from each other. Similar schisms in the past had been later repaired, but this one continues after nearly 1000 years.
1075: the
Investiture Controversy is sparked when
Pope Gregory VII asserted in the Dictatus papae extended rights granted to the pope (disturbing the balance of power) and a new interpretation of God's role in founding the Church itself.
1075: Chinese official and diplomat
Shen Kuo asserts the Song dynasty's rightful border lines by using court archives against the bold bluff of
Emperor Daozong of Liao, who had asserted that
Liao dynasty territory exceeded its earlier-accepted bounds.
1075–1076: a civil war in the
Western Chalukya Empire of India; the Western Chalukya monarch
Someshvara II plans to defeat his own ambitious brother
Vikramaditya VI by allying with a traditional enemy,
Kulothunga Chola I of the
Chola Empire; Someshvara's forces suffer a heavy defeat, and he is eventually captured and imprisoned by Vikramaditya, who proclaimed himself king.
1075–1077: the
Song dynasty of
China and the
Lý dynasty of
Vietnam fight
a border war, with Vietnamese forces striking first on land and with their navy, and afterwards Song armies advancing as far as modern-day
Hanoi, the capital, but withdraw after Lý makes peace overtures; in 1082, both sides exchange the territories that they had captured during the war, and later a border agreement is reached.
1076: the Chinese
Song dynasty places strict government monopolies over the production and distribution of
sulfur and
saltpetre, in order to curb the possibility of merchants selling
gunpowder formula components to enemies such as the
Tanguts and
Khitans.
1076: the Song Chinese allies with southern Vietnamese
Champa and Cambodian
Chenla to conquer the
Lý dynasty, which is an unsuccessful campaign.
1077: Chinese official
Su Song is sent on a diplomatic mission to the
Liao dynasty and discovers that the
Khitan calendar is more mathematically accurate than the
Song calendar;
Emperor Zhezong later sponsors Su Song's astronomical
clock tower in order to compete with Liao astronomers.
1080–1081: The Chinese statesman and scientist
Shen Kuo is put in command of the campaign against the
Western Xia, and although he successfully halts their invasion route to Yanzhou (modern
Yan'an), another officer disobeys imperial orders and the campaign is ultimately a failure because of it.
1084: the enormous Chinese historical work of the Zizhi Tongjian is compiled by scholars under Chancellor
Sima Guang, completed in 294 volumes and included 3 million written
Chinese characters
1086: compilation of the
Domesday Book by order of
William I of England; it was similar to a modern-day government
census, as it was used by William to thoroughly document all the landholdings within the kingdom that could be properly
taxed.
1087: a new office at the Chinese international
seaport of
Quanzhou is established to handle and regulate taxes and tariffs on all mercantile transactions of foreign goods coming from Africa, Arabia, India, Sri Lanka, Persia, and South East Asia.
1087:
William II of England, son of William the Conqueror, is crowned king of England.
1088: the renowned
polymath Chinese scientist and official
Shen Kuo made the world's first reference to the
magneticcompass in his book Dream Pool Essays,[12][13] along with encyclopedic documentation and inquiry into scientific discoveries.
1093: when the Chinese Empress Dowager Gao dies, the conservative faction that had followed
Sima Guang is ousted from court, the liberal reforms of
Wang Anshi reinstated, and
Emperor Zhezong of Song halted all negotiations with the
Tanguts of the
Western Xia, resuming in armed conflict with them.
The Byzantine Greek
Hosios Loukas monastery sees the completion of its Katholikon (main church), the earliest extant
domed-
octagon church from 1011 to 1012.
1024 – The world's first
paper-printed money can be traced back to the year 1024, in
Sichuan province of
Song dynasty China. The Chinese government would step in and overtake this trend, issuing the central government's official banknote in the 1120s.
1075 – the Song Chinese innovate a partial decarbonization method of repeated forging of cast iron under a cold blast that Hartwell and Needham consider to be a predecessor to the 18th century
Bessemer process.[42]
1088 – As written by
Shen Kuo in his Dream Pool Essays, the earlier 10th-century invention of the
pound lock in China allows large ships to travel along canals without laborious hauling, thus allowing smooth travel of government ships holding cargo of up to 700 tan (491⁄2tons) and large privately owned-ships holding cargo of up to 1600 tan (113 tons).[44]
Abattouy, Mohammed. (2002), "The Arabic Science of weights: A Report on an Ongoing Research Project", The Bulletin of the Royal Institute for Inter-Faith Studies 4, pp. 109–130:
Bowman, John S. (2000). Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. New York: Columbia University Press.
Chan, Alan Kam-leung and Gregory K. Clancey, Hui-Chieh Loy (2002). Historical Perspectives on East Asian Science, Technology and Medicine. Singapore: Singapore University Press.
ISBN9971-69-259-7
Darlington, Oscar G. "Gerbert, the Teacher", The American Historical Review (Volume 52, Number 3, 1947): 456 – 476.
Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, Anne Walthall, James B. Palais (2006). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Company.
ISBN0-618-13384-4.
Hartwell, Robert. "Markets, Technology, and the Structure of Enterprise in the Development of the Eleventh-Century Chinese Iron and Steel Industry", The Journal of Economic History (Volume 26, Number 1, 1966): 29–58.
Holmes, Jr., Urban T. "The Idea of a Twelfth-Century Renaissance", Speculum (Volume 26, Number 4, 1951): 643 – 651.
Mohn, Peter (2003). Magnetism in the Solid State: An Introduction. New York: Springer-Verlag Inc.
ISBN3-540-43183-7.
Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 1, Physics. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1: Paper and Printing. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 1, Botany. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
Prioreschi, Plinio. (2003). A History of Medicine. Omaha: Horatius Press.
ISBN1-888456-05-1.
Rashed, Roshdi, ed. (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Routledge,
ISBN0-415-02063-8
Salhab, Walid Amine. (2006). The Knights Templar of the Middle East: The Hidden History of the Islamic Origins of Freemasonry. San Francisco: Red Wheel/Weiser LLC.
ISBN1-57863-346-X.