This
guideline is a part of the English Wikipedia's Manual of Style. It is a generally accepted standard that editors should attempt to follow, though
occasional exceptions may apply. Any substantive edit to this page should reflect
consensus. When in doubt, discuss first on the
talk page. |
Manual of Style (MoS) |
---|
This Manual of Style (MoS or MOS) is the style manual for all English Wikipedia articles (though provisions related to accessibility apply across the entire project, not just to articles). This primary page is supported by further detail pages, which are cross-referenced here and listed at Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Contents. If any contradiction arises, this page has precedence. a
Editors should write articles using straightforward, succinct, and easily understood language. Editors should structure articles with consistent, reader-friendly layouts and formatting (which are detailed in this guide).
Where more than one style or format is acceptable under the MoS, one should be used consistently within an article and should not be changed without good reason. Edit warring over stylistic choices is unacceptable. b
New content added to this page should directly address a persistently recurring style issue.
Sometimes the MoS provides more than one acceptable style or gives no specific guidance. When either of two styles is acceptable it is generally considered inappropriate for a Wikipedia editor to change from one style to another unless there is some substantial reason for the change. c
Edit warring over style, or enforcing optional style in a bot-like fashion without prior consensus, is never acceptable. b d
Unjustified changes from one acceptable, consistently applied style in an article to a different style may generally be reverted. Seek opportunities for commonality to avoid disputes over style.
If you believe an alternative style would be more appropriate for a particular article, seek consensus by discussing this at the article's talk page or – if it raises an issue of more general application or with the MoS itself – at Wikipedia talk:Manual of Style. If a discussion does not result in consensus for the change at the article, continue to use the already-established style there. If discussion fails to reach a consensus regarding which of two or more competing styles to use at all, then default to the style that was used in the first post- stub version of the article in which one of the applicable styles appeared. (This fall-back position does not give unchallengeable primacy to that particular style during consensus discussion, nor give the editor who imposed that earliest style any more say in the discussion.)
A title should be a recognizable name or description of the topic, balancing the criteria of being natural, sufficiently precise, concise, and consistent with those of related articles.
For formatting guidance see the Wikipedia:Article titles § Article title format section, noting the following:
{{
italic title}}
near the top of the article. For mixed situations, use, e.g., {{DISPLAYTITLE:Interpretations of ''2001: A Space Odyssey''}}
, instead. Use of italics should conform to
Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Text formatting § Italic type.Subject both to the above and to Wikipedia:Article titles, the rest of the MoS, particularly § Punctuation, applies also to the title.
An article's content should begin with an introductory lead section – a concise summary of the article – which is never divided into sections sections.
. The remainder of the article is typically divided intoInfoboxes, images, and related content in the lead section must be right-aligned.
Certain standardized templates and wikicode that are not sections go at the very top of the article, before the content of the lead section, and in the following order:
{{
Short description}}
template{{
Hatnote}}
template {{
Use dmy dates}}
, {{
Use Canadian English}}
){{
main}}
){{
Taxobox}}
and {{
Chembox}}
, or a variant thereof, at applicable articles); usually also includes the first imageIn the Vector 2022 skin, the table of contents is separate from the article content. In some older skins, a navigable table of contents appears automatically just after the lead if an article has at least four section headings.
If the topic of a section is covered in more detail in a dedicated article {{
main|Article name}}
or {{
further|Article name}}
immediately under the section heading.
As explained in detail in Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Layout § Standard appendices and footers, several kinds of material (mostly optional) may appear after the main body of the article, in the following order:
{{
Authority control}}
(distinguishes uses of the same name for two subjects, or multiple names for one subject)Stand-alone list articles have some additional layout considerations.
Section headings should generally follow the guidance for article titles (above), and should be presented in sentence case (Funding of UNESCO projects in developing countries), not title case (Funding of UNESCO Projects in Developing Countries). e
The heading must be on its own line, with one blank line just before it; a blank line just after is optional and ignored (but do not use two blank lines, before or after, because that will add unwanted visible space).
For technical reasons, section headings should:
;
") to create
pseudo-headings.These technical restrictions are necessary to avoid technical complications and are not subject to override by local consensus.
As a matter of consistent style, section headings should:
These are broadly accepted community preferences.
An
invisible comment on the same line must be inside the == ==
markup:
h
==Implications<!--This comment works fine.-->==
==<!--This comment works fine.-->Implications==
==Implications==<!--This comment causes problems.-->
<!--This comment breaks the heading completely.-->==Implications==
It is more usual practice to put such comments below the heading.
Before changing a heading, consider whether you might be breaking existing links to it. If there are many links to the old title, i create an anchor with that title to ensure that these still work. Similarly, when linking to a section, leave an invisible comment at the heading of the target section, naming the linking articles, so that if the heading is later altered these can be fixed. For (a combined) example:
==Implications{{subst:
Anchor|Consequences}}==
<!-- Section linked from [[Richard Dawkins]], [[Daniel Dennett]]. -->
which will be saved in the article as:
==Implications<span class="anchor" id="Consequences"></span>
==
<!-- Section linked from [[Richard Dawkins]], [[Daniel Dennett]]. -->
The advantage of using {{subst:Anchor}}
, or simply inserting the <span>
tags directly, is that when edits are made to the section in the future, the anchor will not be included in page history entries as part of the section name. When {{Anchor}}
is used directly, that undesirable behavior does occur. Note: if electing to insert the span directly, do not abbreviate it by using a self-closing tag, as in ==Implications<span id="Consequences" />==
, since in HTML5 that XML-style syntax is valid only for certain tags, such as <br />
.
1 See
Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Linking § Avoiding broken section links for further discussion.
The above guidance about sentence case, redundancy, images, and questions also applies to headers of tables (and of table columns and rows). However, table headings can incorporate citations and may begin with, or be, numbers. Unlike page headings, table headers do not automatically generate link anchors. Aside from sentence case in glossaries, the heading advice also applies to the term entries in description lists. If using template-structured glossaries, terms will automatically have link anchors, but will not otherwise. Citations for description-list content go in the term or definition element, as needed.
National varieties of English (for example, American English or British English) differ in vocabulary (elevator vs. lift ), spelling (center vs. centre), and occasionally grammar . Articles such as English plurals and Comparison of American and British English provide information about such differences. The English Wikipedia prefers no national variety over others.
An article's date formatting (December 10, 2024 vs. 10 December 2024) is also related to national varieties of English – see MOS:DATEFORMAT and especially MOS:DATETIES and MOS:DATEVAR.
The conventions of a particular variety of English should be followed consistently within a given article. Exceptions include:
For an international encyclopedia, using vocabulary common to all varieties of English is preferable.
An article on a topic that has strong ties to a particular English-speaking nation should use the (formal, not colloquial) English of that nation. For example:
For topics with strong ties to Commonwealth of Nations countries and other former British territories, use Commonwealth English orthography, largely indistinguishable from British English in encyclopedic writing (excepting Canada, which uses a different orthography).
When an English variety's consistent usage has been established in an article, maintain it in the absence of consensus to the contrary. With few exceptions (e.g., when a topic has strong national ties or the change reduces ambiguity), there is no valid reason for changing from one acceptable option to another.
When no English variety has been established and discussion does not resolve the issue, use the variety found in the first post- stub revision that introduced an identifiable variety. The established variety in a given article can be documented by placing the appropriate variety of English template on its talk page.
An article should not be edited or renamed simply to switch from one variety of English to another. {{
subst:uw-engvar}}
may be placed on an editor's talk page to explain this.
Wikipedia article titles and section headings use sentence case, not title case; see Wikipedia:Article titles and § Section headings. For capitalization of list items, see § Bulleted and numbered lists. Other points concerning capitalization are summarized below. Full information can be found at Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Capital letters. The central point is that Wikipedia does not capitalize something unless it is consistently capitalized in a substantial majority of independent, reliable sources.
Generally, do not capitalize the word the in mid-sentence: throughout the United Kingdom, not throughout The United Kingdom. Conventional exceptions include certain proper names (he visited The Hague) and most titles of creative works (Tolkien wrote The Lord of the Rings – but be aware that the might not be part of the title itself, e.g., Homer composed the Odyssey).
There are special considerations for: band names · institution names · nicknames · titles of works · trademarks.
The English-language titles of compositions (books and other print works, songs and other audio works, films and other visual media works, paintings and other artworks, etc.) are given in title case, in which every word is given an initial capital except for certain less important words (as detailed at Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Capital letters § Composition titles). The first and last words in an English-language title are always capitalized.
Capitalization in non-English language titles varies, even over time within the same language; generally, retain the style of the original for modern works, and follow the usage in current j English-language reliable sources for historical works. When written in the Latin alphabet, many of these items should also be in italics, or enclosed in quotation marks.
When using taxonomic ("scientific") names, capitalize and italicize the genus: Berberis, Erithacus. (Supergenus and subgenus, when applicable, are treated the same way.) Italicize but do not capitalize taxonomic ranks at the level of species and below: Berberis darwinii, Erithacus rubecula superbus, Acacia coriacea subsp. sericophylla; no exception is made for proper names forming part of scientific names. Higher taxa (order, family, etc.) are capitalized in Latin (Carnivora, Felidae) but not in their English equivalents (carnivorans, felids); they are not italicized in either form, except for viruses, where all names accepted by the ICTV are italicized (Retroviridae).
Cultivar and cultivar group names of plants are not italicized, and are capitalized (including the word Group in the name); cultivar names appear within single quotes (Malus domestica 'Red Delicious'), while cultivar groups do not (Cynara cardunculus Scolymus Group).
English vernacular ("common") names are given in lower case in article prose ( plains zebra, mountain maple, and southwestern red-tailed hawk) and in sentence case at the start of sentences and in other places where the first letter of the first word is capitalized. e They are additionally capitalized where they contain proper names: Przewalski's horse, California condor, and fair-maid-of-France. This applies to species and subspecies, as in the previous examples, as well as to general names for groups or types of organism: bird of prey, oak, great apes, Bryde's whales, livestock guardian dog, poodle, Van cat, wolfdog. When the common name coincides with a scientific taxon, do not capitalize or italicize, except where addressing the organism taxonomically: A lynx is any of the four medium-sized wild cat species within the genus Lynx. Non-English vernacular names, when relevant to include, are handled like any other non-English terms: italicized as such, and capitalized only if the rules of the native language require it. Non-English names that have become English-assimilated are treated as English ( ayahuasca, okapi).
Standardized breeds should generally retain the capitalization used in the breed standards. l Examples: German Shepherd, Russian White goat, Berlin Short-faced Tumbler. As with plant cultivars, this applies whether or not the included noun is a proper name, in contrast to how vernacular names of species are written. However, unlike cultivars, breeds are never put in single quotation marks, and their names are never part of a scientific name. A species term appended at the end for disambiguation ("cat", "hound", "horse", "swine", etc.) should not be capitalized, unless it is a part of the breed name itself and is consistently presented that way in the breed standards (rare cases include Norwegian Forest Cat and American Quarter Horse).
Create redirects from alternative capitalization and spelling forms of article titles, and from alternative names, e.g., Adélie Penguin, Adelie penguin, Adelie Penguin and Pygoscelis adeliae should all redirect to Adélie penguin.
The words sun, earth, moon, and solar system do not take capitals in general use (The sun was over the mountain top; The tribal people thought of the whole earth as their home). They are capitalized when the entity is personified (Sol Invictus ('Unconquered Sun') was the Roman sun god) or when used as the name of a specific body in a scientific or astronomical context (The Moon orbits the Earth; but Io is a moon of Jupiter).
Names of planets, moons, asteroids, comets, stars, constellations, and galaxies are proper names, and therefore capitalized (The planet Mars is in the constellation Gemini, near the star Pollux). The first letter of every word in such a name is capitalized (Alpha Centauri and not Alpha centauri; Milky Way, not Milky way). Words such as comet and galaxy should be capitalized when they form part of a proper name, but not when they are used as a generic term (Halley's Comet is the most famous of the comets; The Andromeda Galaxy is a spiral galaxy).
Do not capitalize directions such as north or their related forms (We took the northern road) except when they are parts of proper names (Great North Road, Great Western Drive, South Pole).
Capitalize names of regions if they have attained proper-name status, including informal conventional names (Southern California; the Western Desert), and derived terms for people (e.g., a Southerner as someone from the Southern United States). Do not capitalize descriptive names for regions that have not attained the status of proper names, such as southern Poland.
Composite directions may or may not be hyphenated, depending on the variety of English adopted in the article. Southeast Asia and northwest are more common in American English; but South-East Asia and north-west in British English. In cases such as north–south dialogue and east–west orientation, use an en dash; see § En dashes: other uses.
Capitalize names of particular institutions (the founding of the University of Delhi; the history of Stanford University) but not generic words for institutions (the high school is near the university). Do not capitalize the at the start of an institution's name, regardless of the institution's preferred style. There are rare exceptions, when a leading The is represented by a T in the organization's acronym: The International Cat Association (TICA).
Treat political or geographic units similarly: The city has a population of 55,000; The two towns merged to become the City of Smithville. Do not mimic the style of local newspapers which refer to their municipality as the City or The City; an exception is the City of London, referred to as the City in a context that already makes the subject clear, as distinct from London and Greater London. When in doubt, use the full name for accessibility reasons; users of text-to-speech systems usually cannot hear a difference between city and City.
Ligatures should be used in languages in which they are standard (hence Moreau's last words were clin d'œil is preferable to Moreau's last words were clin d'oeil) but not in English (encyclopedia or encyclopaedia, not encyclopædia), except in proper names (Æthelstan, not Aethelstan).
Abbreviations are shortened forms of words or phrases. In strict analysis, they are distinct from contractions, which use an apostrophe (e.g., won't, see § Contractions), and initialisms. An initialism is formed from some or all of the initial letters of words in a phrase. Below, references to abbreviations should be taken to include acronyms, and the term acronym to apply also to initialisms.
When an abbreviation will be used in an article, first introduce it using the full expression:
Do not use capitals in the full version merely because capitals are used in the abbreviation: an early Local Area Network (LAN).
Except in special circumstances, common abbreviations (such as PhD, DNA, USSR) need not be expanded even on first use.
Pluralize acronyms by adding -s or -es: Three CD-ROMs and two BIOSes were released. Do not use apostrophes to form plurals: Three CD-ROM's and two BIOS's were released.
An abbreviation may or may not be terminated with a full point (also called a period or full stop). A consistent style should be maintained within an article. North American usage is typically to end all abbreviations with a period/point (Dr. Smith of 42 Drummond St.) but in common British and Australian usage, no period/point is used if the abbreviation (contraction) ends in the last letter of the unabbreviated form (Dr Smith of 42 Drummond St) unless confusion could result. This is also common practice in scientific writing. Regardless of punctuation, words that are abbreviated to more than one letter are spaced (op. cit. not op.cit. or opcit). There are some exceptions: PhD for "Philosophiae Doctor"; BVetMed for "Bachelor of Veterinary Medicine". In most situations, Wikipedia uses no such punctuation inside acronyms and initialisms: GDP, not G.D.P.
US is a commonly used abbreviation for United States, although U.S. – with periods and without a space – remains common in North American publications, including in news journalism. Multiple American style guides, including The Chicago Manual of Style (since 2010), now deprecate "U.S." and recommend "US".
For commonality reasons, use US by default when abbreviating, but retain U.S. in American or Canadian English articles in which it is already established, unless there is a good reason to change it. Because use of periods for abbreviations and acronyms should be consistent within any given article, use US in an article with other country abbreviations, and especially avoid constructions like the U.S. and the UK. In longer abbreviations that incorporate the country's initials (USN, USAF), never use periods. When the United States is mentioned with one or more other countries in the same sentence, US (or U.S.) may be too informal, especially at the first mention or as a noun instead of an adjective (France and the United States, not France and the US). Do not use the spaced U. S. or the archaic U.S. of A., except when quoting. Do not use U.S.A. or USA except in a quotation, as part of a proper name (Team USA), or in certain technical and formal uses (e.g., the ISO 3166-1 alpha-3, FIFA, and IOC country codes).
To indicate approximately, the use of {{
circa}}
, showing as
c., is preferred over circa, c., ca., or approx.
Avoid abbreviations when they might confuse the reader, interrupt the flow, or appear informal. For example:
{{
abbr|approx.|approximately}}
at first occurrence:
approx.).Avoid devising new abbreviations, especially acronyms. For example, World Union of Billiards is good as a translation of Union Mondiale de Billard, but neither it nor the reduction WUB is used by the organization or by independent sources; use the original name and its official abbreviation, UMB.
If it is necessary to abbreviate in a tight space, such as a column header in a table, use widely recognized abbreviations. For example, for New Zealand gross national product, use NZ and GNP, with a link if the term has not already been written out in the article: NZ GNP. Do not make up initialisms such as NZGNP.
Either <abbr>
or {{
abbr}}
can be used for abbreviations and acronyms: <abbr title="World Health Organization">WHO</abbr>
or {{
abbr|WHO|World Health Organization}}
will generate
WHO;
hovering over the rendered text causes a
tooltip of the long form to pop up.
In normal text and headings, use and instead of the ampersand (&): January 1 and 2, not January 1 & 2. But retain an ampersand when it is a legitimate part of the style of a proper noun, the title of a work, or a trademark, such as in Up & Down or AT&T. Elsewhere, ampersands may be used with consistency and discretion where space is extremely limited (e.g., tables and infoboxes). Quotations may be cautiously modified, especially for consistency where different editions are quoted, as modern editions of old texts routinely replace ampersands with and (just as they replace other disused glyphs, ligatures, and abbreviations). Another frequent permissible but not required use is in short bibliographic references to works by multiple authors, e.g.: <ref>Lubbers & Scheepers (2002); Van Hiel & Mervielde (2002); Swyngedouw & Giles (2007); Van Hiel (2012).</ref>.
Italics are used for emphasis, rather than boldface or capitals. But overuse diminishes its effect; consider rewriting instead.
Use <em>...</em>
or {{
em|...}}
for emphasis. This allows
user style sheets to handle emphasis in a customized way, and helps reusers and translators.
2
The meerkat is <em>not</em> actually a cat.
The meerkat is {{em|not}} actually a cat.
Use italics for the titles of works (such as books, films, television series, named exhibitions, computer games, music albums, and artworks). The titles of articles, chapters, songs, episodes, storylines, research papers and other short works instead take double quotation marks.
Italics are not used for major religious works (the Bible, the Quran, the Talmud). Many of these titles should also be in title case.
Use italics when mentioning a word or character the term panning is derived from panorama; the most common letter in English is e). When a whole sentence is mentioned, double quotation marks may be used instead, with consistency (The preposition in She sat on the chair is on; or The preposition in "She sat on the chair" is "on"). Quotation marks may also be used for shorter material to avoid confusion, such as when italics are already heavily used in the page for another purpose (e.g., for many non-English words and phrases). Mentioning (to discuss grammar, wording, punctuation, etc.) is different from quoting (in which something is usually expressed on behalf of a quoted source). Quotation is done with quotation marks, never italics, nor both at once
or a string of words up to one sentence (A closely related use of italics is when introducing or distinguishing terms: The natural numbers are the integers greater than 0.
Italics are indicated for non-English phrases and isolated non-English words that are not commonly used in everyday English. However, proper names (such as place names) in other languages are not usually italicized, nor are terms in non-Latin scripts. The {{
lang}}
template and its variants support all
ISO 639 language codes, correctly identifying the language and automatically italicizing for you. Please use these templates rather than just manually italicizing non-English material.
Use italics for the scientific names of plants, animals, and all other organisms except viruses at the genus level and below (italicize Panthera leo and Retroviridae, but not Felidae). The hybrid sign is not italicized (Rosa × damascena), nor is the "connecting term" required in three-part botanical names (Rosa gallica subsp. officinalis).
Do not put quotations in italics. Quotation marks (or block quoting) alone are sufficient and the correct ways to denote quotations. Italics should only be used if the quoted material would otherwise call for italics. ( See below.)
Use italics within quotations to reproduce emphasis that exists in the source material or to indicate the use of non-English words. The emphasis is better done with {{
em}}
. If it is not clear that the source already included italics (or some other styling) for emphasis, or to indicate when emphasis was not used in the original text but was editorially added later, add the editorial note [emphasis in original] or [emphasis added], respectively, after the quotation.
Italicize only the elements of the sentence affected by the emphasis. Do not italicize surrounding punctuation.
Brief quotations of copyrighted text may be used to illustrate a point, establish context, or attribute a point of view or idea. While quotations are an indispensable part of Wikipedia, try not to overuse them. Using too many quotes is incompatible with an encyclopedic writing style and may be copyright infringement, and so most of the content should be in the editor's own words. Consider paraphrasing quotations into plain and concise text when appropriate (while being aware that close paraphrasing can still violate copyright). It is incorrect to put quotations in italics unless the material would be italicized for some other reason.
Per the verifiability policy, direct quotations must be accompanied by an inline citation from a reliable source that supports the material. This is especially important in articles that are about or contain material about living or recently deceased people (BLPs).
Quotations must be
verifiably attributed, and the wording of the quoted text must be faithfully reproduced. This is referred to as the principle of minimal change. Where there is good reason to change the wording, bracket the changed text; for example, "Ocyrhoe told him his fate" might be quoted as "Ocyrhoe told [her father] his fate". If there is a significant error in the original, follow it with {{
sic}}
(producing [
sic ) to show that the error was not made by Wikipedia. However, insignificant spelling and typographic errors should simply be silently corrected (for example, correct basicly to basically). When applied to linked titles appearing between <ref>...</ref>
tags, title parameters in citation templates, or similar text that is linked, the syntax of the template may be adjusted to {{
sic|nolink=y}}
(producing [sic] in the resulting linked text). For the sake of accuracy and indexing, the titles of referenced sources should not be corrected for spelling, but minor typographic corrections (like changing
curly quotes to straight) may be made silently.
Use
ellipses to indicate omissions from quoted text. Legitimate omissions include extraneous, irrelevant, or parenthetical words, and unintelligible speech (umm and hmm), but do not omit text where doing so would remove important context or alter the meaning of the text. Vulgarities and obscenities should be shown exactly as they appear in the quoted source; Wikipedians should
never bowdlerize words (G-d d--m it!), but if the text being quoted itself does so, copy the text verbatim and use {{
sic}}
to indicate that the text is quoted as shown in the source.
In direct quotations, retain dialectal and archaic spellings, including capitalization (but not archaic glyphs and ligatures, as detailed below in § Typographic conformity).
Quotation should be used, with attribution, to present emotive opinions that cannot be expressed in Wikipedia's own voice, but never to present cultural norms as simply opinional:
Concise opinions that are not overly emotive can often be reported with attribution instead of direct quotation. Use of quotation marks around simple descriptive terms can imply something doubtful regarding the material being quoted; sarcasm or weasel words such as supposedly or so-called, might be inferred.
A quotation is not a facsimile and, in most cases, it is not a requirement that the original formatting be preserved. Formatting and other purely typographical elements of quoted text m should be adapted to English Wikipedia's conventions without comment, provided that doing so will not change or obscure meaning or intent of the text. These are alterations which make no difference when the text is read aloud, for example:
{{
em}}
) or, in an already-italic passage, boldface (with {{
strong}}
). For titles of books, articles, poems, and so forth, use italics or quotation marks following
the guidance for titles. Italics can also be added to mark up
non-English terms (with the {{
lang}}
template), for an
organism's scientific name, and to indicate a
words-as-words usage.{{
abbr}}
.
However, national varieties should not be changed, as these may involve changes in vocabulary. For example, a quotation from a British source should retain British spelling, even in an article that otherwise uses American spelling. should not be reformatted.
Numbers also usuallyDirect quotation should not be used to preserve the formatting preferred by an external publisher (especially when the material would otherwise be unchanged), as this tends to have the effect of scare-quoting:
Italics can be used to mark a particular usage as a term of art (a case of " words as words"), especially when it is unfamiliar or should not be reworded by a non-expert:
When quoting a complete sentence, it is usually recommended to keep the first word capitalized. However, if the quoted passage has been integrated into the surrounding sentence (for example, with an introduction such as "X said that"), the original capital letter may be lower-cased.
It is normally unnecessary to explicitly note changes in capitalization. However, for more precision, the altered letter may be put inside square brackets: "The" → "[t]he".
The reader must be able to determine the source of any quotation, at the very least via a footnote. The source must be named in article text if the quotation is an opinion characterizing it in a biased manner.
. When attributing a quotation, avoidSee § For a quotation within a quotation.
Be conservative when linking within quotations; link only to targets that correspond to the meaning clearly intended by the quote's author. Where possible, link from text outside of the quotation instead – either before it or soon after. (If quoting hypertext, add an editorial note, [link in original] or [link added], as appropriate, to avoid ambiguity as to whether the link was made by the original author.)
Format a long quote (more than about forty words or a few hundred characters, or consisting of more than one paragraph, regardless of length) as a
block quotation, indented on both sides. Block quotations should be enclosed in {{
blockquote}}
.
Do not enclose block quotations in quotation marks (and especially avoid large, decorative quotation marks; those provided by the {{
cquote}}
template have been disabled in mainspace). Block quotations using a colored background are also discouraged.
Use {{blockquote}}
and so on only for actual quotations;
indentation for other purposes is done differently.
It is conventional to precede a block quotation with an introductory sentence (or sentence fragment) and append the source citation to that line. Alternatively, the {{blockquote}}
template provides parameters for attribution and citation which will appear below the quotation. This below-quotation attribution style is intended for famous quotations and is unusual in articles because it may strike an inappropriate tone. A quotation with no cited source should be flagged with {{
quote without source}}
, or deleted.
Line breaks and indentation inside a {{blockquote}}
or <blockquote>
are generally ignored; use <
poem>
or {{
poem quote}}
for poetry, lyrics, and similar material:
{{blockquote|<poem>
What this grim, ungainly, ghastly, gaunt, and ominous bird of yore
Meant in croaking "Nevermore."
</poem>}}
This gives:
What this grim, ungainly, ghastly, gaunt, and ominous bird of yore
Meant in croaking "Nevermore."
Or quote such material inline, with line breaks indicated by {{nbsp}}/
, and paragraph or stanza breaks by {{nbsp}}//
.
Pull quotes do not belong in Wikipedia articles. These are the news and magazine style of "pulling" material already in the article to reuse it in attention-grabbing decorative quotations. This unencyclopedic approach is a form of editorializing, produces out-of-context and undue emphasis, and may lead the reader to conclusions not supported in the material.
Quotations from non-English language sources should appear with a translation into English, preferably a modern j one. Quotations that are translations should be explicitly distinguished from those that are not. Indicate the original source of a translation (if it is available, and not first published within Wikipedia), and the original language (if that is not clear from the context).
If the original, untranslated text is available, provide a reference for it or include it, as appropriate.
When editors themselves translate text into English, care must always be taken to include the original text, in italics (except for non-Latin-based writing systems, and best done with the {{
lang}}
template which both italicizes as appropriate and provides language metadata); and to use actual and (if at all possible) common English words in the translation. Unless you are certain of your competency to translate something, see
Wikipedia:Translation for assistance.
{{
'}}
and {{
's}}
are helpful when an apostrophe (or single quote) appears at the beginning or end of text in italics or bold, because italics and bold are themselves indicated by sequences of single quotes. Example: Dynasty's first season (markup: ''Dynasty''{{'s}} first season
).{{
okina}}
),
saltillo ( ꞌ – markup: {{
saltillo}}
),
Hebrew ayin or Arabic ʿayn ( ʽ – markup: {{
ayin}}
) and Arabic
hamza ( ʼ – markup:{{
hamza}}
), should be represented by those templates or by their
Unicode values.
{{
wg-apos}}
.{{
hamza}}
.{{
softsign}}
or {{
hamza}}
.In the material below, the term quotation includes conventional uses of quotation marks such as for titles of songs, chapters, episodes, and so on. Quotation marks are also used in other contexts, such as in cultivar names.
Most quotations take double quotation marks (Bob said: "Jim ate the apple."). n Exceptions:
{{
lang|es|casa}}
{{
gloss|house}}
yields: casa 'house'.Use single quotes:
For deeper nesting, alternate between single and double quotes:
For quote marks in immediate succession, add a sliver of space by using {{ " '}}, {{ ' "}}, or (as in the example just given) {{ " ' "}}:
He announced, "The answer was 'Yes!{{
' "}}
In the bolded text typically appearing at the opening of an article:
If a non-quoted but otherwise identical construction would work grammatically without a comma, using a comma before a quotation embedded within a sentence is optional:
The comma-free approach is often used with partial quotations:
A comma is required when it would be present in the same construction if none of the material were a quotation:
Do not insert a comma if it would confuse or alter the meaning:
It is clearer to use a colon to introduce a quotation if it forms a complete sentence, and this should always be done for multi-sentence quotations:
No additional punctuation is necessary for an explicit words-as-words scenario:
Quotation marks should be used for the following names and titles:
Correct: The Beatles wrote "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" for their album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band.
Do not use quotation marks or italics for:
Many, but not all, of the above items should also be in title case.
Use the logical quotation style in all articles, regardless of the variety of English in which they are written. Include terminal punctuation within the quotation marks only if it was present in the original material, and otherwise place it after the closing quotation mark. For the most part, this means treating periods and commas in the same way as question marks: keep them inside the quotation marks if they apply only to the quoted material and outside if they apply to the whole sentence. Examples are given below.
If the quotation is a single word or a sentence fragment, place the terminal punctuation outside the closing quotation mark. When quoting a full sentence, the end of which coincides with the end of the sentence containing it, place terminal punctuation inside the closing quotation mark.
If the quoted sentence is followed by a clause that should be preceded by a comma, omit the full stop (period), and do not replace it with a comma inside the quotation. p Other terminal punctuation, such as a question mark or exclamation mark, may be retained.
If the quoted sentence is followed by a clause identifying the speaker, use a comma outside the quotation mark instead of a full stop inside it, but retain any other terminal punctuation, such as a question mark.
Do not follow quoted words or fragments with commas inside the quotation marks, except where a longer quotation has been broken up and the comma is part of the full quotation.
External links to article titles should have the title in quotes inside the link. The CS1 and CS2 citation templates do this automatically, and untemplated references should do the same.
Internal links (wikilinks) accompanied by quotation marks should usually have the quotes outside the link. This applies to titles of works in quotation marks (songs, episodes, etc.)
"[[ ]]"
.)[[" "]]
.)However, quotation marks are needed inside wikilinks when the quotation mark is part of the link, or where the linked display text includes quotation marks indicating slang, nicknames, common names, or similar usage.
This section applies to both round brackets ( ), often called parentheses, and square brackets [ ].
If a sentence contains a bracketed phrase, place the sentence punctuation outside the brackets (as shown here). However, where one or more sentences are wholly inside brackets, place their punctuation inside the brackets. There should be no space next to the inner side of a bracket. An opening bracket should usually be preceded by a space. This may not be the case if it is preceded by an opening quotation mark, another opening bracket, or a portion of a word:
There should be a space after a closing bracket, except where a punctuation mark follows (though a spaced dash would still be spaced after a closing bracket) and in unusual cases similar to those listed for opening brackets.
Avoid adjacent sets of brackets. Either put the parenthetical phrases in one set separated by semicolons, or rewrite:
Square brackets are used to indicate editorial replacements and insertions within quotations, though this should never alter the intended meaning. They serve three main purposes:
If a sentence includes subsidiary material enclosed in square or round brackets, it must still carry terminal punctuation after those brackets, regardless of any punctuation within the brackets.
However, if the entire sentence is within brackets, the closing punctuation falls within the brackets. (This sentence is an example.)
Square brackets inside of links must be escaped:
He said, "[[John Doe|John [Doe]]] answered." |
He said, " John [Doe] answered." |
He said, "[[John Doe|John {{bracket|Doe}}]] answered." |
He said, " John [Doe] answered." |
[https://example.com On the first day [etc.]] |
|
[https://example.com On the first day {{bracket|etc.}}] |
The <
nowiki>
markup can also be used: <nowiki>[Doe]</nowiki>
or <nowiki>[etc.]</nowiki>
.
If a URL itself contains square brackets, the wiki-text should use the
URL-encoded form https://example.com/foo.php?query=%5Bxxx%5Dyyy
, rather than ...query=xxxyyy
. This will avoid truncation of the link after xxx
.
Use an ellipsis (plural ellipses) if material is omitted in the course of a quotation, unless square brackets are used to gloss the quotation .
...
); do not use the precomposed ellipsis character (…
) or three dots separated by spaces (. . .
)"Alpha, Bravo,{{nbsp}}... Zulu"
. ? ! : ; , ) ] }
or by a closing quotation mark (single or double), use a non-breaking space before the ellipsis, and no space after it:
Jones wrote: "These stories amaze me. The facts suffer so frightfully{{nbsp}}...".
"But what of the other cities? London, Paris{{nbsp}}...?"
(Place terminal punctuation after an ellipsis only if it is textually important, as is often the case with exclamation marks and question marks but rarely with periods.)He continued to pursue Smith ("...{{nbsp}}to the ends of the earth", he had sworn) until his own death.
Correct: | John Smith, Janet Cooper's son, is a well-known playwright. |
Correct: | Janet Cooper's son John Smith is a well-known playwright. (when Janet has multiple sons) |
Correct: | Janet Cooper's son, John Smith, is a well-known playwright. (when Janet has only one son) |
Always use a pair of commas for this, unless another punctuation mark takes the place of the second comma:
Incorrect: | The newest member, John Smith was blunt. |
Correct: | Blunt comments came from the newest member, John Smith. |
Correct: | The newest member, John Smith – a retired teacher – was blunt. |
Correct: | Burke and Wills, fed by locals (on beans, fish, and ngardu), survived for a few months. |
Incorrect: | Burke and Wills, fed by locals (on beans, fish, and ngardu) survived for a few months. |
Clear: | Schubert's heroes included Mozart, Beethoven, and Joseph and Michael Haydn. |
Awkward: | Mozart was, along with the Haydns, both Joseph and Michael, and also Beethoven, one of Schubert's heroes. |
Correct: | He traveled through North Carolina before staying in Chattanooga, Tennessee, for the night. |
Incorrect: | He traveled through North Carolina before staying in Chattanooga, Tennessee for the night. |
Also include commas when the geographical element is used as a disambiguator:
Correct: | Hantratty received a PhD from the University of California, Irvine, in 1977. |
Incorrect: | Hantratty received a PhD from the University of California, Irvine in 1977. |
Correct: | He set October 1, 2011, as the deadline for Patterson to meet his demands. |
Incorrect: | He set October 1, 2011 as the deadline for Patterson to meet his demands. |
Correct: | She said, "The weather changes too often", and made other complaints. |
Incorrect: | She said, "The weather changes too often," and made other complaints. |
A serial comma (sometimes also known as an Oxford comma or Harvard comma) is a comma used immediately before a conjunction (and, or, nor) in a list of three or more items.
Editors may use either convention so long as each article is internally consistent. Serial commas are more helpful when article text is complex, such as a list with multi-word items (especially if one contains its own "and") or a series of probably unfamiliar terms.
However, there are cases in which either omitting or including the serial comma results in ambiguity:
In such cases of ambiguity, clarify one of four ways:
A colon (:) introduces something that demonstrates, explains, or modifies what has come before, or is a list of items that has just been introduced. The items in such a list may be separated by commas, or if they are more complex and perhaps themselves contain commas, the items should be separated by semicolons or arranged in a bulleted list.
A colon may also be used to introduce direct speech enclosed within quotation marks.
In most cases, a colon works best with a complete grammatical sentence before it. When what follows the colon is also a complete sentence, start it with a capital letter, but otherwise do not capitalize after a colon except where doing so is needed for another reason, such as for a proper name. When a colon is being used as a separator in an article title, section heading, or list item, editors may choose whether to capitalize what follows, taking into consideration the existing practice and consistency with related articles.
Except in technical usage (a 3:1 ratio), no sentence should contain multiple colons, no space should precede a colon, and a space (but never a hyphen or dash) should follow the colon.
A semicolon (;) is sometimes an alternative to a full stop (period), enabling related material to be kept in the same sentence; it marks a more decisive division in a sentence than a comma. If the semicolon separates clauses, normally each clause must be independent (meaning that it could stand on its own as a sentence). In many cases, only a comma or only a semicolon will be correct in a given sentence.
Correct: | Though he had been here before, I did not recognize him. |
Incorrect: | Though he had been here before; I did not recognize him. |
Above, "Though he had been here before" cannot stand on its own as a sentence, and therefore is not an independent clause.
Correct: | Oranges are an acidic fruit; bananas are classified as alkaline. |
Incorrect: | Oranges are an acidic fruit, bananas are classified as alkaline. |
This incorrect use of a comma between two independent clauses is known as a comma splice; however, in certain kinds of cases, a comma may be used where a semicolon would seem to be called for:
Accepted: | "Life is short, art is long." (two brief clauses in an aphorism; see Ars longa, vita brevis) |
Accepted: | "I have studied it, you have not." (reporting brisk conversation, such as this reply of Newton's) |
A sentence may contain several semicolons, especially when the clauses are parallel in construction and meaning; multiple unrelated semicolons are often signs that the sentence should be divided into shorter sentences or otherwise refashioned.
Unwieldy: | Oranges are an acidic fruit; bananas are classified as alkaline; pears are close to neutral; these distinctions are rarely discussed. |
Better: | Oranges are an acidic fruit, bananas are alkaline, and pears are close to neutral; these distinctions are rarely discussed. |
Semicolons are used in addition to commas to separate items in a listing, when commas alone would result in confusion.
Confusing: | Sales offices are located in Boston, Massachusetts, San Francisco, California, Singapore, and Millbank, London, England. |
Clear: | Sales offices are located in Boston, Massachusetts; San Francisco, California; Singapore; and Millbank, London, England. |
The meaning of a sentence containing a trailing clause that starts with the word however depends on the punctuation preceding that word. A common error is to use the wrong punctuation, thereby changing the meaning to one not intended.
When the word however is an adverb meaning "nevertheless", it should be preceded by a semicolon and followed by a comma. Example:
It was obvious they could not convert these people; however, they tried. | |
Meaning: | It was obvious they could not convert these people; nevertheless, they tried. |
When the word however is a conjunction meaning "in whatever manner", or "regardless of how", it may be preceded by a comma but not by a semicolon, and should not be followed by punctuation. Example:
It was obvious they could not convert these people, however they tried. | |
Meaning: | It was obvious they could not convert these people, regardless of how they tried. |
In the first case, the clause that starts with "however" cannot be swapped with the first clause; in the second case this can be done without change of meaning:
However they tried, it was obvious they could not convert these people. | |
Meaning: | Regardless of how they tried, it was obvious they could not convert these people. |
If the two clauses cannot be swapped, a semicolon is required.
A sentence or clause can also contain the word however in the middle, if it is an adverb meaning "although" that could have been placed at the beginning but does not start a new clause in mid-sentence. In this use, the word may be enclosed between commas. Example:
He did not know, however, that the venue had been changed at the last minute. | |
Meaning: | However, he did not know that the venue had been changed at the last minute. |
Hyphens (-) indicate conjunction. There are three main uses:
).Multi-word hyphenated items: It is often possible to avoid multi-word hyphenated modifiers by rewording (a four-CD soundtrack album may be easier to read as a soundtrack album of four CDs). This is particularly important where converted units are involved (the 6-hectare-limit (14.8-acre-limit) rule might be possible as the rule imposing a limit of six hectares (14.8 acres), and the ungainly 4.9-mile (7.9 km) -long tributary as simply 4.9-mile (7.9 km) tributary).
For optional hyphenation of compound points of the compass such as southwest/south-west, see § Compass points.
Do not use a capital letter after a hyphen except for a proper name following the hyphen: Graeco-Roman and Mediterranean-style, but not Gandhi-Like. In titles of published works, when given in title case, follow the capitalization rule for each part independently (The Out-of-Towners), unless reliable sources consistently do otherwise in a particular case (The History of Middle-earth).
Hyphenation rules in other languages may be different. Thus, in French a place name such as Trois-Rivières ('Three Rivers') is hyphenated, when it would not be in English. Follow reliable sources in such cases.
Spacing: A hyphen is never followed or preceded by a space, except when hanging the prefix sub- and the suffix -less.
or when used to display parts of words independently, such asImage filenames and redirects: Image filenames are not part of the encyclopedic content; they are tools. They are most useful if they can be readily typed, so they usually use hyphens instead of dashes. Similarly, article titles with dashes should also have a corresponding redirect from a copy of the title with hyphens: for example, Michelson-Morley experiment redirects to Michelson–Morley experiment.
Non-breaking: A
non-breaking hyphen ({{
nbhyph}}
) will not be used as a point of line-wrap.
Soft hyphens: Use
soft hyphens to mark locations where a word will be broken and hyphenated if necessary at the end of a line of text, usually in
very long words or narrow spaces (such as captions, narrow table columns, or text adjacent to a very wide image), for example: {{
shy|Penn|syl|va|nia and Mass|a|chu|setts style themselves com|mon|wealths.}}
. Use sparingly to avoid making wikitext difficult to read and edit. For more information, see
Help:Line-break handling.
Encoding: The hyphen is represented by the ASCII/UNICODE HYPHEN-MINUS character, which is entered by the hyphen or minus key on all standard keyboards. Do not use the UNICODE HYPHEN character.
Hyphenation involves many subtleties that cannot be covered here; the rules and examples presented above illustrate the broad principles.
Two forms of dash are used on Wikipedia: en dash (–) and em dash (—). To enter them, click on them in the CharInsert toolbar, or enter them manually as:
Do not use a double hyphen (--
) to stand in for a dash.
Sources use dashes in varying ways. For consistency and clarity, Wikipedia adopts the following principles.
In article titles, do not use a hyphen (-) as a substitute for an en dash, for example in eye–hand span (since eye does not modify hand). Nonetheless, to aid searching and linking, provide a redirect with hyphens replacing the en dash(es), as in eye-hand span. Similarly, provide category redirects for categories containing dashes. When an en dash is being used as a separator in an article title or section heading, editors may choose whether to capitalize what follows, taking into consideration the existing practice and consistency with related articles.
Dashes are often used to mark divisions within a sentence: in pairs (parenthetical dashes, instead of parentheses or pairs of commas) or singly (perhaps instead of a colon). They may also indicate an abrupt stop or interruption in reporting quoted speech. In all such cases, either unspaced em dashes or spaced en dashes can be used, with consistency maintained throughout a given article:
Ideally, an en dash should be preceded by a non-breaking space; this prevents the dash from appearing at the beginning of a line. The {{
snd}}
template may be used for this:
Do not insert any spaces where an en dash should be unspaced
.Dashes can clarify a sentence's structure when commas, parentheses, or both are also being used.
Use dashes sparingly. More than two in a single sentence makes the structure unclear; it takes time for the reader to see which dashes form a pair, if any.
For ranges between numbers, dates, or times, use an en dash:
Do not change hyphens to dashes in filenames,
URLs, or templates such as {{
Bibleverse}}
(which formats verse ranges into URLs), even if a range is embedded in them.
Do not mix en dashes with between or from.
The en dash in a range is always unspaced, except when either or both elements of the range include at least one space, hyphen, or en dash; in such cases, {{ snd}} between them will provide the proper formatting.
If negative values are involved, an unspaced en dash might be confusing:
Here, the relationship is thought of as parallel, symmetric, equal, oppositional, or at least involving separate or independent elements. The components may be nouns, adjectives, verbs, or any other independent part of speech. Often, if the components are reversed there would be little change of meaning.
Generally, use a hyphen in compounded proper names of single entities.
Use an en dash between the names of nations or nationalities when referring to an association between them. For people and things identifying with multiple nationalities, use a hyphen when using the combination adjectivally and a space when they are used as nouns, with the first used attributively to modify the second.
A slash or some other alternative may occasionally be better to express a ratio, especially in technical contexts
.Use an en dash for the names of two or more entities in an attributive compound.
Do not use an en dash for hyphenated personal names, even when they are used as adjectives:
Do not use spaces around the en dash in any of the compounds above.
The form of category names follows the corresponding main articles, e.g., Category:Trans–New Guinea languages. However, the principle is not extended when compounding other words in category names, e.g., Category:Tennis-related lists and Category:Table tennis-related lists both use hyphens.
Spaced en dashes are sometimes used between parts of list items. For example:
or
Editors may choose whether to capitalize what follows, taking into consideration the existing practice and consistency with related articles.
The en dash (–) has several common functions beyond its use in lists and running text. It is used to join components less strongly than a hyphen would ; conversely, it may also separate components less strongly than a slash would . Consider the relationship that exists between two components when deciding what punctuation to place between them.
An indented em dash may be used when attributing the source of a passage, such as a block quotation or poem. This dash should not be fully spaced: however, for reasons related to metadata and accessibility, it is best to place a hair space between the dash and the name. t Most of Wikipedia's quotation templates provide this formatting automatically.
For example, {{ in5}}—{{ hair space}}Charlotte Brontë will produce:
— Charlotte Brontë
Do not use typewriter approximations or other substitutes, such as two hyphens (--), for em or en dashes.
For a negative sign or subtraction operator use U+2212 −
MINUS SIGN (−), which can also be generated by clicking on the −
following the ±
in the Insert toolbar beneath the edit window. Do not use U+2212 − MINUS SIGN inside a <math>
tag, as the character gives a syntax error; instead use a normal hyphen U+002D - HYPHEN-MINUS.
Generally, avoid joining two words with a slash, also called a forward slash, stroke or solidus ( / ), because it suggests that the words are related without specifying how. Replace with clearer wording.
An example: The parent/instructor must be present at all times. Must both be present? (Then write the parent and the instructor.) Must at least one be present? (Then write the parent or the instructor.) Are they the same person? (Use a hyphen: the parent-instructor.)
In circumstances involving a distinction or disjunction, the en dash the digital–analog distinction.
is usually preferable to the slash:An unspaced slash may be used:
7/8
, but see other techniques at
Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers § Fractions and ratios);A spaced slash may be used:
To avoid awkward linebreaks, code spaced slashes (and fraction slashes) with a non-breaking space on the left and a normal space on the right, as in: My mama told me / You better shop around
. For short constructions, both spaces should be non-breaking: x / y
. On the other hand, if two long words are connected by an unspaced slash, an {{
wbr}} added after the slash will allow a linebreak at that point.
Do not use the backslash character ( \ ) in place of a slash.
Prefer the division operator ( ÷ ) to slash or fraction slash when representing elementary arithmetic in general text: 10 ÷ 2 = 5. In more advanced mathematical formulas, a vinculum or slash is preferred: or xn/n! .
Avoid writing and/or unless other constructions would be lengthy or awkward. Instead of Most had trauma and/or smoke inhalation, write simply trauma or smoke inhalation (which would normally be interpreted as an inclusive or to imply or both); or, for emphasis or precision or both, write trauma or smoke inhalation or both. Where more than two possibilities are present, instead of x, y, and/or z write one or more of x, y, and z or some or all of x, y, and z.
Unicode symbols are preferred over composed ASCII symbols for improved readability and accessibility. Be mindful of presentations that may require ASCII, like sourcecode. Keys for these symbols can be found at the bottom of the Source Editor.
Composed ASCII symbol |
Preferred replacement |
---|---|
--> |
→ |
<-- |
← |
<--> or <-> |
↔ |
^ |
↑ |
>= |
≥ |
<= |
≤ |
~= |
≈ |
Avoid using the # symbol (known as the number sign, hash sign, pound sign, or octothorpe) when referring to numbers or rankings. Instead write number, No. or Nos.; do not use the symbol №. For example:
Incorrect: | Her album reached #1 in the UK albums chart. |
Correct: | Her album reached number one in the UK albums chart. |
Correct: | Her album reached No. 1 in the UK albums chart. |
Correct: | Her albums Foo and Bar reached Nos. 1 and 3. |
Correct: | Her albums Foo and Bar reached numbers one and three in the UK albums chart. |
An exception is issue numbers of comic books, which unlike for other periodicals are conventionally given in general text in the form #1, unless a volume is also given, in which case write volume two, number seven or
Vol. 2,
No. 7. Another exception are periodical publications carrying both, issue and number designations (typically one being a year-relative and the other an absolute value); they should be given in the form 2 #143 in citations, or be spelt out as
Iss. 2,
No. 143 in text. When using the
abbreviations, write {{abbr|Vol.|Volume}}
, {{abbr|Iss.|Issue}}
, {{abbr|No.|Number}}
, or {{abbr|Nos.|Numbers}}
, at first occurrence.
In normal text, never put a space before a comma, semicolon, colon, period/full stop, question mark, or exclamation mark (even in quoted material; see § Typographic conformity).
Some editors place two spaces after a period/full stop (
); these are condensed to one space when the page is rendered, so it does not affect what readers see.Where a word or phrase that includes terminal punctuation ends a sentence, do not add a second terminal punctuation mark. If a quoted phrase or title ends in a question mark or exclamation mark, it may confuse readers as to the nature of the article sentence containing it, and so is usually better reworded to be mid-sentence. Where such a word or phrase occurs mid-sentence, new terminal punctuation (usually a period) must be added at the end.
Incorrect: | Slovak returned to the Red Hot Chili Peppers in 1985 after growing tired of What Is This?. |
Acceptable: | Slovak returned to the Red Hot Chili Peppers in 1985 after growing tired of What Is This? |
Better: | Slovak, having grown tired of What Is This?, returned to the Red Hot Chili Peppers in 1985. |
Incorrect: | He made several films with Sammy Davis Jr.. |
Correct: | He made several films with Sammy Davis Jr. |
Reference tags (<ref>...</ref>
) are used to create
footnotes (also called endnotes or simply notes), as
citation footnotes and sometimes
explanatory notes. All reference tags should immediately follow the text to which the footnote applies, with no intervening space.
u Apart from the exceptions listed below, references are placed after adjacent punctuation, not before. Adjacent reference tags should have no space between them, nor should there be any between tags and
inline dispute and cleanup templates.
When reference tags are used, a footnote list must be added, and this is usually placed in the References section, near the end of the article in the standard appendices and footers.
Exceptions: Reference tags are placed before dashes, not after. If a footnote applies only to material within parentheses, the tags belong just before the closing parenthesis.
Sentences should place punctuation after mathematical formulae as if they were normal body text. See Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Mathematics § Punctuation after formulae.
Dates should be linked only when they are germane and topical to the subject, as discussed at Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Linking § Chronological items. For ranges of dates and times, see § Other uses for en dashes.
Times of day are normally expressed in figures rather than words. Context determines whether the 12- or the 24-hour format is more appropriate.
Full dates are formatted 10 June 1921 or June 10, 1921; or where the year is omitted, use 10 June or June 10.
More information on all the above topics can be found at Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers § Chronological items, including the handling of dates expressed in different calendars, and times corresponding to different time zones.
Terms such as "current", "now", and "recent"
j should be avoided. What is current today may not be tomorrow; situations change over time. Instead, use date- and time-specific text. To help keep information updated use {{
As of}}
, which will allow editors to catalog and update dated statements.
Incorrect: | He is the current ambassador to ... |
Correct: | As of March 2011, he is the ambassador to ... |
{{val|5.8|e=7|u=kg}}
.{{val|1.534|0.35|e=23|u=m}}
. See
MOS:NUM § Uncertainty and rounding for other formats.{{
convert}}
.−
.×
or ⋅
. Care should be taken not to confuse the dot operator (in the "Math and logic" section of the edit toolbox) with an interpunct (in the "Insert" section of the edit toolbox) or a bullet. The letter x should not be used to indicate multiplication, but it is used (unspaced) as the substitute for "by" in terms such as
4x4.''a''<sup>''n''</sup>
.-
, the
asterisk *
, and either the
caret ^
or the double asterisk **
respectively;
scientific notation is replaced by
E notation.{{
math}}
can be used to style formulas to distinguish them from surrounding text. For single variables, {{
mvar}}
is handy.For the possessive of singular nouns, including proper names and words ending in s, add 's (my daughter's achievement, my niece's wedding, Cortez's men, the boss's office, Illinois's largest employer, the US's partners, Descartes's philosophy, Verreaux's eagle). Exception: abstract nouns ending with an /s/ sound when followed by sake (for goodness' sake, for his conscience' sake). If a name ending in s or z would be difficult to pronounce with 's added (Jesus's teachings), consider rewording (the teachings of Jesus).
Official names (of companies, organizations, or places) should not be altered. ( St Thomas' Hospital should therefore not be rendered as St Thomas's Hospital or St. Thomas Hospital, even for consistency.)
To maintain an objective and impersonal encyclopedic voice, an article should never refer to its editors or readers using I, my, we, us, our, or similar words: We note that some believe that bats are bugs. But some of these words are acceptable in certain figurative uses. For example:
Avoid addressing the reader using you or your, which sets an inappropriate tone
.{{
Crossref}}
can be used for this: {{
Crossref|(see [[Chicken]])}}
, {{
Crossref|(See [[Dacian language]] for details.)}}
It is usually better to rewrite the material to integrate these links contextually rather than use
explicit Wikipedia self-references.Refer to a person with pronouns (and other gendered words) that reflect their latest self-identification in recent reliable sources. Singular they/them/their are appropriate in reference to anyone who uses those, as replacements for neopronouns, and in generic reference to persons of unknown gender.
Ships (military or private-sector) may be referred to by either neuter pronouns (it, its) or feminine pronouns (she, her). Both usages are acceptable, but each article should be internally consistent and exclusively employ only one style. w As with all optional styles, articles should not be changed from one style to another without clear and substantial reason. x Try to avoid close, successive uses of the same referent for a ship, by using different referents in rotation; for example, it or she, the ship, and the ship's name. The she/her optional style does not apply to other vessel/vehicle types, such as trains. y
Use the appropriate plural; allow for cases (such as excursus or hanif) in which a word is now listed in major English dictionaries, and normally takes an s or es plural, not its original plural: two excursuses, not two excursūs as in Latin; three hanifs, not three hunafa as in Arabic.
Some collective nouns – such as team (and proper names of them), army, company, crowd, fleet, government, majority, mess, number, pack, and party – may refer either to a single entity or to the members that compose it. In British English, such words are sometimes treated as singular, but more often treated as plural, according to context (but singular is not actually incorrect). In North American English, these words are almost invariably treated as singular; the major exception is that when a sports team is referred to by its short name, plural verbs are commonly used, e.g. the Heat are playing the Lakers tonight.
Names of towns and countries usually take singular verbs (even when grammatically plural: the United States is in North America, the Netherlands is also known as Holland), but exceptionally in British English, typically when used to refer to a sports team named after a town or country or when discussing actions of a government, plural is used. For example, in England are playing Germany tomorrow, England refers to a football team; but in England is in the Northern hemisphere, it refers to the country. See also § National varieties of English including § Opportunities for commonality.
By default, write articles in the present tense, including those covering works of fiction and products or works that have been discontinued. Generally, use past tense only for past events, and for subjects that are dead or no longer meaningfully exist. Use past tense for articles about periodicals no longer produced, with common-sense exceptions.
Tense can be used to distinguish between current and former status of a subject: Dún Aonghasa is the ruin of a prehistoric Irish cliff fort. Its original shape was presumably oval or D-shaped, but parts of the cliff and fort have since collapsed into the sea. (Emphasis added to distinguish the different tense usages; Dún Aonghasa is a structure that was later damaged by an event.)
Always use present tense for verbs that describe genres, types, and classes, even if the subject of the description (e.g. program, library, device) no longer exists, is discontinued, is unsupported or is unmaintained.
Avoid contractions, which have little place in formal writing. For example, write do not instead of don't. Use of o'clock is an exception. Contracted titles such as Dr. and St generally should not be used but may apply in some contexts (e.g., quoted material, place names, titles of works).
Use gender-neutral language – avoiding the generic he, for example – if this can be done with clarity and precision. This does not apply to direct quotations or the titles of works (The Ascent of Man), which should not be altered, or to wording about one-gender contexts, such as an all-female school (When any student breaks that rule, she loses privileges).
References to space programs, past, present and future, should use gender-neutral phrasing: human spaceflight, robotic probe, uncrewed mission, crewed spacecraft, piloted, unpiloted, astronaut, cosmonaut, not manned or unmanned. Direct quotations and proper nouns that use gendered words should not be changed, like Manned Maneuvering Unit.
Ships may be referred to using either neuter forms ("it", "its") or feminine forms ("she", "her", "hers"). Either usage is acceptable, but each article should be internally consistent and employ one or the other exclusively. As with all optional styles, articles should not be changed from one style to another unless there is a substantial reason to do so. See Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Military history § Pronouns.
Avoid words and phrases that give the impression of straining for formality, that are unnecessarily regional, or that are not widely accepted. See List of commonly misused English words; see also § Identity.
Avoid phrases such as remember that and note that, which address readers directly in an unencyclopedic tone and lean toward instructional. They are a subtle form of Wikipedia self-reference, "breaking the fourth wall". Similarly, phrases such as of course, naturally, obviously, clearly, and actually make presumptions about readers' knowledge, may express a viewpoint, and may call into question the reason for including the information in the first place. Do not tell readers that something is interesting, ironic, surprising, unexpected, amusing, coincidental, etc. Simply present sourced facts neutrally and let readers draw their own conclusions. Such constructions can usually just be deleted, leaving behind proper sentences with a more academic and less pushy tone: Note that this was naturally subject to controversy in more conservative newspapers. becomes This was subject to controversy in more conservative newspapers. Similar variants which indirectly instruct readers, such as It should be noted that or It is important to note that, may be rewritten by leaving out those words: It is important to note that the colloquial dialect of Portuñol is similar to but different from Mirandese becomes just The colloquial dialect of Portuñol is similar to but different from Mirandese.
Avoid rhetorical questions, especially in headings. Use a heading of Active listening and text such as The term active listening, coined in ..., not What is active listening?
For issues in the use of cross-references – e.g., – see )§ Second-person pronouns.
A subset term identifies a set of members of a larger class. Common subset terms are including, among, and etc. Avoid redundant subset terms (e.g., mis-constructions like Among the most well-known members of the fraternity are included two members of the Onassis family or The elements in stars include hydrogen, helium, etc.). The word including does not introduce a complete list; instead, use consisting of, or composed of.
When there is a discrepancy between the term most commonly used by reliable sources for a person or group and the term that person or group uses for themselves, use the term that is most commonly used by recent j reliable sources. If it is unclear which is most used, use the term that the person or group uses.
Disputes over how to refer to a person or group are addressed by Wikipedia content policies, such as those on verifiability, and neutral point of view (and article titles when the term appears in the title of an article).
Use specific terminology. For example, it is often more appropriate for people or things from Ethiopia (a country in Africa) to be described as Ethiopian, not carelessly (with the risk of stereotyping) as African.
Specific guidelines apply to any person whose gender might be questioned, and any living transgender or non-binary person. In summary:
Non-English terms should be used sparingly. In general,
use italics for phrases and words that are not current in English. This is best done with the {{
lang}}
template using the appropriate
ISO language code, e.g., {{
lang|es|casa}}
. There are alternatives to the {{lang}}
template which also provide additional information about a non-English word or phrase, such as a link to the language name; . As Wikipedia does not apply italics to names of people, places, or organizations, the alternative template {{
langr}}
can be used to apply the language markup without italicizing.
z Templates like {{
lang}}
automatically italicize text written using the Latin alphabet, so specifying italics is unnecessary.
Text written in non-Latin scripts such as Greek, Cyrillic, and Chinese should not be italicized or put in bold, as the difference in script is already sufficient to visually distinguish the text. Generally, any non-Latin text should include an appropriate romanization.
Loanwords and borrowed phrases that have common usage in English – Gestapo, samurai, vice versa – do not require italics. A rule of thumb is to not italicize words that appear unitalicized in major general-purpose English dictionaries.
Names and terms originally written using a non- Latin script—such as the Greek alphabet, the Cyrillic alphabet, or Chinese characters—must be romanized for English-language use. If a particular romanization of the subject's name is most common in English (Tchaikovsky, Chiang Kai-shek), that form should be used. Otherwise, the romanization of names should adhere to a particular widely used system for the language in question (Aleksandr Tymoczko, Wang Yanhong).
The use of diacritics in non-English words is neither encouraged nor discouraged. Use generally depends on whether they appear in reliable English-language sources, though with some additional constraints imposed by site guidelines. Provide redirects from alternative forms that include or exclude diacritics.
Proper names in languages written using the Latin alphabet can include letters with diacritics, ligatures, and other characters that are not commonly used in contemporary English. Wikipedia normally retains these special characters, except where there is a well-established English spelling that replaces them with English standard letters. Examples:
Use of diacritics is determined on a topic-by-topic basis; a small group of editors cannot prohibit or require the use of diacritics within a given class of articles. aa
Spell a name consistently in the title and the text of an article. reliable sources, including but not limited to those already cited in the article. ab For punctuation of compounded forms, see relevant guidelines in § Punctuation.
For a non-English name, phrase, or word, adopt the spelling most commonly used in English-language
Proper names in non-English languages should generally not be italicized, unless another reason applies; such as with
titles of major published works, e.g.,
Les Liaisons dangereuses; or when being compared to other names for the same subject in a
words-as-words manner, e.g., Nuremberg (
German: Nürnberg). When non-English text should not be italicized, it can still be properly tagged by using the {{
lang}}
template with the |italic=unset
parameter: {{
lang|de|Nürnberg|italic=unset}}
.
Sometimes usage will be influenced by other guidelines, such as § National varieties of English, which may lead to different choices in different articles.
Some topics are necessarily technical: however, editors should seek to write articles accessible to the greatest possible number of readers. Minimize the use of
jargon, and adequately explain its meaning when it is used. Overly technical material can be tagged with {{
Technical}}
or {{
Technical-statement}}
, so that it can be addressed by other editors. For topics that require a more technical approach, the creation of a separate introductory article (like
Introduction to general relativity) may be a solution.
Excessive wikilinking (linking within Wikipedia) can result from trying too hard to avoid putting explanations in parenthetical statements, like the one that appeared earlier in this sentence. Do not introduce specialized words simply to teach them to the reader when more widely understood alternatives will do.
When the concepts underlying the jargon used in an article are too complex to explain concisely in a parenthetical,
write one level down. For example, consider adding a brief background section with {{
main}}
tags pointing to articles with a fuller treatment of the prerequisite material. This approach is practical only when the prerequisite concepts are central to the exposition of the article's main topic and when such prerequisites are not too numerous. Short articles, such as
stubs, generally do not have such sections.
Geographical or place names are the nouns used to refer to specific places and geographic features. These names often give rise to conflict, because the same places are called different things by different peoples speaking different languages. Many place names have a historical context that should be preserved, but common sense should prevail. There can be few places that have not been parts of more than one culture or have had only one name. As proper nouns, all such place names (but not terms for types of places) have major words capitalized.
A place should generally be referred to consistently by the same name as in the title of its article j name in round brackets (parentheses) on the first occurrence of the name in applicable sections of the article. This resembles linking; it should not be done to the detriment of style. On the other hand, it is probably better to provide such a variant too often than too rarely. If more than one historical name is applicable for a given context, the other names should be added after the modern English name, that is: "historical name (modern name, other historical names)".
. An exception may be made when there is a widely accepted historical English name appropriate to the given context. In cases where such a historical name is used, it should be followed by the modernThis is an English-language encyclopedia, so established English names are preferred if they exist, and spellings in non-English alphabets should always be transcribed into the Roman alphabet. In general, other articles should refer to places by the names which are used in the articles on those places, according to the rules described at Wikipedia:Naming conventions (geographic names). If a different name is appropriate in a given historical or other context, then that may be used instead, although it is normal to follow the first occurrence of such a name with the standard modern name in parentheses.
At the start of an article, provide notable equivalent names from other languages, including transcriptions where necessary:
Names in languages with no particular present-day or historical ties to the place in question (English excepted, of course) should not be listed as alternatives.
Avoid anachronism. An article about Junípero Serra should say he lived in Alta Mexico, not in California, because the latter entity did not yet exist in Serra's time. The Romans invaded Gaul, not France, and Thabo Mbeki was the president of the Republic of South Africa, not of the Cape Colony. To be clear, you may sometimes need to mention the current name of the area (for example "in what is now France"), especially if no English name exists for that area in the relevant historical period.
==Heading==
delimited by two equal signs, or at the top of the lead section. Do not place images immediately above section headings.|alt=
text takes the image's place for those who are unable to see the image. See
Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Accessibility/Alternative text for images.Style guidelines for still images are generally also applicable to equivalent questions regarding the use of audio and video media.
Textual information should always be transmitted as text, rather than in an image. True text can be easily searched, selected, copied, and manipulated by readers; its presentation can also be adjusted using CSS. These tasks are generally difficult or impossible with text presented in an image: images are slower to download, and generally cannot be searched or processed by screen readers used by the visually impaired. Any important textual information in an image should be provided somewhere as text, generally either in the image's caption or alt text.
For entering textual information as audio, see Wikipedia:WikiProject Spoken Wikipedia.
Photographs and other graphics should have captions, unless they are unambiguous depictions of the subject of the article or when they are "self-captioning" images (such as reproductions of album or book covers). In a biography article no caption is necessary for a portrait of the subject pictured alone, but one might be used to give the year, the subject's age, or other circumstances of the portrait along with the name of the subject.
Make links only where they are relevant and helpful in the context: Excessive use of hyperlinks can be distracting and may slow the reader down. Redundant links (like the one in the tallest people on Earth) clutter the page and make future maintenance harder. High-value links that are worth pursuing should stand out clearly.
Linking to sections: A hash sign (#
) followed by the appropriate heading will lead to a relevant part of a page. For example, [[Apostrophe#Use in non-English names]]
links to a particular section of the article
Apostrophe.
Initial capitalization: Wikipedia's MediaWiki software does not require that wikilinks begin with an upper-case character. Capitalize the first letter only where this is naturally called for, or when specifically referring to the linked article by its name (see also related rule for italics in cross-references): Snakes are often venomous, but lizards only rarely .
Check links: Ensure the destination is the intended one; many dictionary words lead to disambiguation pages and not to complete or well-chosen articles.
External links should not normally be used in the body of an article. Instead, articles can include an External links section at the end, pointing to further information outside Wikipedia as distinct from citing sources. The standard format is a primary heading, ==External links==
, followed by a bulleted list of links. Identify the link and briefly indicate its relevance to the article. For example:
*https://history.nih.gov/exhibits/history/index.html History of NIH
*https://nih.gov/ National Institutes of Health homepage
These will appear as:
Where appropriate, use
external link templates such as {{
Official website}}
and {{
URL}}
.
Add external links with discretion; Wikipedia is not a link repository.
Other things being equal, keep markup simple. This makes wikitext easier to understand and edit, and the results seen by the reader more predictable. Use HTML and CSS markup sparingly. See: KISS principle.
In general, wikitext formatting is considered easier to use than HTML and wikitext is preferred if there are equivalents; see Help:HTML in wikitext. Obsolete elements and attributes should be updated or removed. There are many templates that allow HTML markup to be used without putting it in articles directly, such as {{ em}} (see MOS:EMPHASIS) and {{ strong}} (see MOS:BOLD).
An
HTML character entity is sometimes better than the equivalent Unicode character, which may be difficult to identify in edit mode; for example, Α
is explicit whereas Α
(the upper-case form of Greek α
) may be misidentified as the Latin A
.
Modifications in font size, blank space, and color style sheet and should be reserved for special cases only.
are an issue for the Wikipedia site-wideTypically, the use of custom font styles:
Specify font sizes relatively (for example with font-size: 85%
) rather than absolutely (like font-size: 8pt
). The resulting font size of any text should not drop below 85% of the page's default font size.
Do not use color alone to mark differences in text: they may be invisible to people with color blindness and useless in black-and-white printouts or displays.
Choose colors such as maroon and teal that are distinguishable by readers with the most common form of colorblindness, and additionally mark the differences with change of font or some other means ( maroon and alternative font face, teal). Avoid low contrast between text and background colors. See also color coding.
Even for readers with unimpaired color vision, excessive background shading of table entries impedes readability and recognition of Wikilinks. Background color should be used only as a supplementary visual cue and should be subtle (consider using lighter, less-dominant pastel hues) rather than glaring.
Do not use quotation templates to indent non-quotations. Various templates are available for indentation, including {{
block indent}}
to indent an entire block and {{
in5}}
to indent inline.
Do not use :
(
description list markup) to indent text in articles, even though it is common on talk pages. It causes accessibility problems and outputs invalid HTML.
It is sometimes desirable to force a text segment to appear entirely on a single line—that is, to prevent a line break (line wrap) from occurring anywhere within it.
19 kg
or 19{{
nbsp}}kg
.{{
nowrap}}
, {{
nobreak}}
, or {{
nobr}}
(all equivalent). Markup: for 5° 24′ N, code {{
nobr|5° 24′ N}}
.It is desirable to prevent line breaks where breaking across lines might be confusing or awkward. For example:
Whether a non-breaking space is appropriate depends on context: whereas it is appropriate to use 12{{
nbsp}}MB
in prose, it may be counterproductive in a table (where an unattractive break may be acceptable to conserve precious horizontal space) and unnecessary in a short parameter value in an infobox (where a break would never occur anyway).
A line break may occur at a thin space ( 
, or {{
thinsp}}
), which is sometimes used to correct too-close placement of adjacent characters. To prevent this, consider using {{
nobr}}
.
Insert non-breaking and thin spaces as
named character reference (
or  
), or as templates that generate these ({{
nbsp}}
, {{
thinsp}}
), and never by entering them directly into the edit window from the keyboard – they are visually indistinguishable from regular spaces, and later editors will be unable to see what they are. Inside wikilinks, a construction such as [[World War II]]
works but [[World War{{
nbsp}}II]]
doesn't.
Elements that can selectively display or hide content can interfere with the ability of readers to access said content. These mechanisms include
scrolling lists, and templates like {{
collapse}}
that can be toggled between collapsed and uncollapsed states using a [hide / show] button. These mechanisms should not be used to conceal "
spoiler" information. Templates should generally
not be used to store article text at all, as it interferes with editors' ability to find and edit it. Moreover, content in an article should never be collapsed by default. This applies equally to content in
footnotes,
tables, and
embedded lists,
image galleries, and
image captions.
If such mechanisms are used, care must be taken to ensure the content remains accessible for all users, including
those with limited CSS or JavaScript support. When collapsing is desired, it must be done using the collapsible
parameter of relevant templates, or certain manually-added CSS classes (see
Help:Collapsing). Other methods of hiding content should not be used, as they may render content inaccessible to many users, such as those browsing Wikipedia with
JavaScript disabled or using proxy services such as
Google Web Light.
Collapsed or auto-collapsing cells or sections may be used with tables if they simply repeat information covered in the main text (or are purely supplementary, e.g., several past years of statistics in collapsed tables for comparison with a table of uncollapsed current stats). Auto-collapsing is often a feature of navboxes. A few infoboxes also use pre-collapsed sections for infrequently accessed details. If information in a list, infobox, or other non-navigational content seems extraneous or trivial enough to inspire pre-collapsing it, consider raising a discussion on the article (or template) talk page about whether it should be included at all. If the information is important and the concern is article density or length, consider dividing the article into more sections, integrating unnecessarily list-formatted information into the article prose, or splitting the article.
Editors use "invisible" comments – not shown in the rendered page seen by readers of the article, but visible in the source editing mode when an editor opens the article for editing – to communicate with one another.
Invisible comments are useful for alerting other editors to issues such as common mistakes that regularly occur in the article, a section title's being the target of an incoming link, or pointing to a discussion that established a consensus relating to the article. They should not be used to instruct other editors not to perform certain edits, which could be perceived as expressing a form of ownership over an article, although where existing local consensus is against making an edit they may usefully draw the editor's attention to that. Avoid adding too many invisible comments because they can clutter the wiki source for other editors. Check that your invisible comment does not change the formatting, for example by introducing unwanted white space in the rendered page.
To leave an invisible comment, enclose the text you intend to be read only by editors between <!--
and -->
. For example:
<!-- If you change this section title, also change the links to it on the pages ... -->
(there are bots which can do this, see
MOS:RENAMESECTION)<!-- When adding table entries, remember to update the total given in the text. -->
This notation can be inserted with a single click in wiki markup, just under the edit pane in edit mode.
Pronunciation in Wikipedia is indicated in the
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). In most situations, for ease of understanding by the majority of readers and across variants of the language,
quite broad IPA transcriptions are best for English pronunciations. See
Help:IPA/English and
Help:IPA (general) for keys, and {{
IPA}}
for templates that link to these keys. For English pronunciations,
pronunciation respellings may be used in addition to the IPA.
(Links to policy and guidelines on specific questions)
== ==
but on the same line may cause the section-editing link to fail to appear at all; in other browsers, it may appear, but using it will cause the section heading to not automatically be added to the edit summary.
<ref>...</ref>
tag and the content preceding it.
the content of ab
element may not always be bold, and that of ani
element may not always be italic.
Wikipedians are encouraged to familiarize themselves with modern editions of other guides to style and usage, which may cover details not included here. Those that have most influenced the Wikipedia Manual of Style are: