This is a
timeline of major events in the
history of Jerusalem; a city that had been fought over sixteen times in its history.[1] During its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, and captured and recaptured 44 times.[2]
Chalcolithic
4500–3500 BC: First settlement established near
Gihon Spring (earliest archaeological evidence).
c. 2000 BCE: First known mention of the city, using the name Rušalimum, in the
Middle Kingdom EgyptianExecration texts; although the identification of Rušalimum as Jerusalem has been challenged.[3][4][5] The Semitic root
S-L-M in the name is thought to refer to either "peace" (Salam or Shalom in modern Arabic and Hebrew) or
Shalim, the god of dusk in the
Canaanite religion.
Jerusalem becomes the capital of the
Kingdom of Judah and, according to the Bible, for the first few decades even of a wider united kingdom of Judah and Israel, under kings belonging to the
House of David.
c. 850 BCE: Jerusalem is sacked by
Philistines,
Arabs and
Ethiopians, who looted King
Jehoram's house, and carried off all of his family except for his youngest son
Jehoahaz.
c. 830 BCE:
Hazael of
Aram Damascus conquers most of Canaan. According to the Bible,
Jehoash of Judah gave all of Jerusalem's treasures as a tribute, but Hazael proceeded to destroy "all the princes of the people" in the city.
c. 712 BCE: The
Siloam Tunnel is built in order to keep water from the
Gihon Spring inside the city. According to the Bible the tunnel was built by King
Hezekiah in preparation for a siege by the Assyrians, along with an expansion of Jerusalem's fortifications across the
Tyropoeon Valley to enclose the hill today known as
Mount Zion.[8]
605 BCE: Jerusalem switches its tributary allegiance back to the Neo-Babylonians after Necho II is defeated by
Nebuchadnezzar II at the
Battle of Carchemish.
599–597 BCE:
first Babylonian siege – Nebuchadnezzar II crushed a rebellion in the
Kingdom of Judah and other cities in the Levant which had been sparked by the Neo-Babylonians failed invasion of Egypt in 601.
Jehoiachin of Jerusalem deported to
Babylon.
The return of Babylonian Jews increases the
schism with the
Samaritans, who had remained in the region during the Assyrian and Babylonian deportations.
458 BCE: The third wave of Babylonian returnees is
Ezra's Aliyah.
445 BCE: The fourth and final wave of Babylonian returnees is
Nehemiah's Aliyah.
Nehemiah is the appointed governor of Judah, and rebuilds the
Old City walls.
410 BCE: The
Great Assembly is established in Jerusalem.
365/364-362 and c. 347 BCE: Judea participates in Egyptian-inspired and
Sidonian-led revolts against the Achaemenids, and coins minted in Jerusalem are reflecting the short-lived autonomy.[11][12] Achaemenid general
Bagoas is possibly the same as 'Bagoses' in
Josephus' Antiquities, who defiles the Temple and imposes taxes on sacrifices performed there.[11][13][14]
312 BCE: Jerusalem is re-captured by Ptolemy I Soter after he defeats Antigonus' son
Demetrius I at the
Battle of Gaza. It is probable that Seleucus I Nicator, then an Admiral under Ptolemy's command, also took part in the battle, as following the battle he was given 800 infantry and 200 cavalry and immediately travelled to
Babylon where he founded the
Seleucid Empire.
311 BCE: The Antigonid dynasty regains control of the city after Ptolemy withdraws from Syria again following a minor defeat by Antigonus I Monophthalmus, and a peace treaty is concluded.
302 BCE: Ptolemy invades Syria for a third time, but evacuated again shortly thereafter following false news of a victory for Antigonus against
Lysimachus (another of the Diadochi).
301 BCE:
Coele-Syria (Southern Syria) including Jerusalem is re-captured by Ptolemy I Soter after Antigonus I Monophthalmus is killed at the
Battle of Ipsus. Ptolemy had not taken part in the battle, and the victors Seleucus I Nicator and Lysimachus had carved up the Antigonid Empire between them, with Southern Syria intended to become part of the Seleucid Empire. Although
Seleucus did not attempt to conquer the area he was due, Ptolemy's pre-emptive move led to the
Syrian Wars which began in 274 BC between the successors of the two leaders.
175 BCE:
Antiochus IV Epiphanes succeeds his father and becomes King of the Seleucid Empire. He accelerates Seleucid efforts to eradicate the
Jewish religion by forcing the Jewish High Priest
Onias III to step down in favour of his brother
Jason, who was replaced by
Menelaus three years later. He outlaws
Sabbath and
circumcision, sacks Jerusalem and erects an altar to
Zeus in the Second Temple after plundering it.
164 BC 25
Kislev: The
Maccabees capture Jerusalem following the
Battle of Beth Zur, and rededicate the Temple (see
Hanukkah). The
Hasmoneans take control of part of Jerusalem, while the Seleucids retain control of the
Acra (fortress) in the city and most surrounding areas.
160 BCE: The Seleucids retake control of the whole of Jerusalem after
Judas Maccabeus is killed at the
Battle of Elasa, marking the end of the Maccabean revolt.
134 BCE: Seleucid King
Antiochus VII Sidetes recaptures the city. John Hyrcanus opened King
David's sepulchre and removed three thousand talents which he paid as
tribute to spare the city (according to
Josephus.[16]) John Hyrcanus remains as governor, becoming a
vassal to the
Seleucids
116 BCE: A civil war between Seleucid half-brothers
Antiochus VIII Grypus and
Antiochus IX Cyzicenus results in a breakup of the kingdom and the independence of certain principalities, including Judea.[17][18]
110 BCE: John Hyrcanus carries out the first military conquests of the independent Hasmonean kingdom, raising a mercenary army to capture
Madaba and
Schechem, significantly increasing the regional influence of Jerusalem.[19][20]
73–63 BCE: The
Roman Republic extends its influence into the region in the
Third Mithridatic War. During the war,
Armenian King
Tigranes the Great takes control of Syria and prepares to invade
Judea and
Jerusalem but has to retreat following an invasion of Armenia by
Lucullus.[21] However, this period is believed to have resulted in the first settlement of Armenians in Jerusalem.[22] According to Armenian historian
Movses Khorenatsi writing in c. 482 CE, Tigranes captured Jerusalem and deported Hyrcanus to Armenia, however most scholars deem this account to be incorrect.[23][24]
Roman period
Early Roman period
Events from the
New Testament (
Canonical Gospels,
Acts of the Apostles, Epistles -
Pauline and
Catholic- and the
Book of Revelation) offer a narrative regarded by most Christians as Holy Scripture. Much of the narrative lacks historical anchors and Christian
apologists have tried to calculate a historical chronology of events without reaching consensual conclusions. All such events and dates listed here are presented under this reservation, and are generally lacking non-sectarian scholarly recognition. They are marked in the list with a cross [†].
37–40 CE: "Crisis under
Gaius Caligula" – a financial crisis throughout the empire results in the "first open break" between
Jews and Romans even though problems were already evident during the
Census of Quirinius in 6 CE and under
Sejanus before 31 CE.[37]
45–46 CE [†]: After a famine in Judea,
Paul and
Barnabas provide support to the Jerusalem poor from
Antioch.
57 CE [†]:
Paul of Tarsus is arrested in Jerusalem after he is attacked by a mob in the Temple (
Acts 21:26–39) and defends his actions before a
sanhedrin.
64–68 CE:
Nero persecutes Jews and Christians throughout the
Roman Empire.
138: Restrictions over Christian presence in the city are relaxed after Hadrian dies and
Antoninus Pius becomes emperor.
195: Saint
Narcissus of Jerusalem presides over a council held by the bishops of Palestine in Caesarea, and decrees that
Easter is to be always kept on a Sunday, and not with the
Jewish Passover.
324–325: Emperor
Constantine wins the
Civil Wars of the Tetrarchy and reunites the empire. Within a few months, the
First Council of Nicaea (first worldwide Christian council) confirms status of
Aelia Capitolina as a patriarchate.[42] A significant wave of Christian immigration to the city begins. This is the date on which the city is generally taken to have been renamed Jerusalem.
c. 325: The ban on Jews entering the city remains in force, but they are allowed to enter once a year to pray on
Tisha B'Av.
363: The
Galilee earthquake of 363 together with the re-establishment of Christianity's dominance following the death of Julian the Apostate at the
Battle of Samarra ends attempts to build a third Temple in Jerusalem.
617: Jewish governor
Nehemiah ben Hushiel is killed by a mob of Christian citizens, three years after he is appointed. The
Sassanids quell the uprising and appoint a Christian governor to replace him.
620: Muhammad's night journey (
Isra and Mi'raj) to Jerusalem, according to Islamic belief.[48]
629: Byzantine emperor
Heraclius retakes Jerusalem, after the decisive defeat of the Sassanid Empire at the
Battle of Nineveh (627). Heraclius personally returns the True Cross to the city.[50]
661:
Mu'awiya I is ordained as Caliph of the Islamic world in Jerusalem following the assassination of
Ali in
Kufa, ending the
First Fitna and marking the beginning of the
Umayyad Empire.
677: According to interpretations of
Maronite historian
Theophilus of Edessa,
Mardaites (possibly ancestors of today's
Maronites) took over a swathe of land including Jerusalem on behalf of the Byzantine Emperor, who was simultaneously repelling the Umayyads in the
Siege of Constantinople (674–678). However, this has been contested as a mistranslation of the words "Holy City".[52][53]
744–750: Riots in Jerusalem and other major
Syrian cities during the reign of
Marwan II, quelled in 745–46. The Umayyad army is subsequently defeated in 750 at the
Battle of the Zab by the
Abbasids, who take control of the entire empire including Jerusalem. Marwan II flees via Jerusalem but is assassinated in
Egypt.
813: Caliph
Al-Ma'mun visits Jerusalem and undertakes extensive renovations to the Dome of the Rock.
878:
Ahmad ibn Tulun, ruler of Egypt and founder of the
Tulunid dynasty, conquers Jerusalem and most of
Syria, four years after declaring Egypt's independence from the
Abbasid court in
Baghdad.
904: The
Abbasids regain control of Jerusalem after invading Syria, and the army of Tulunid Emir
Harun retreats to Egypt where the
Tulunids were defeated the following year.
939/944:
Muhammad ibn Tughj al-Ikhshid, governor of Abbasid Egypt and
Palestine, is given the title al-Ikhshid by Abbasid Caliph
Ar-Radi, and in 944 is named hereditary governor of his lands.
946: Muhammad ibn Tughj al-Ikhshid dies.
Abu al-Misk Kafur becomes de facto ruler of the Ikhshidid lands.
951–978:
Estakhri, Traditions of Countries and
Ibn Hawqal, The Face of the Earth write of
Jund Filistin: "Its capital and largest town is
Ramla, but the Holy City of Jerusalem comes very near this last in size", and of Jerusalem: "It is a city perched high on the hills: and you have to go up to it from all sides. In all Jerusalem there is no running water, excepting what comes from springs, that can be used to irrigate the fields, and yet it is the most fertile portion of Filastin."[56]
966:
Al-Muqaddasi leaves Jerusalem to begin his 20-year geographical study, writing in detail about Jerusalem in his Description of Syria, Including Palestine[56]
968:
Abu al-Misk Kafur dies and is also buried in Jerusalem. The
Ikhshidid government divides and the
Fatimids prepare for invasion of Egypt and Palestine.
1023–1041:
Anushtakin al-Dizbari is the governor of
Palestine and
Syria, and defeats the
Jarrahid revolt of 1024–29. Fifteen years later, in 1057, his body was ceremonially transferred to Jerusalem by Caliph
al-Mustansir for reburial.[57]
1030: Caliph Ali az-Zahir authorizes the rebuilding of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and other Christian churches in a treaty with Byzantine Emperor
Romanos III Argyros.
1042: Byzantine Emperor
Constantine IX Monomachos pays for the restoration of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, authorized by Caliph
Ma'ad al-Mustansir Billah. Al-Mustansir authorizes a number of other Christian buildings, including the
Muristan hospital, church and monastery built by a group of Amalfian merchants in c. 1050.
1073: Jerusalem is captured by under Turcoman Emir
Atsiz ibn Uwaq, who was advancing south into the weakening
Fatimid Empire following the decisive defeat of the
Byzantine army at the
Battle of Manzikert fought against the
Great Seljuk Empire two years previously and a devastating six-year famine in Egypt between 1067 and 1072.[58]
1077: Jerusalem revolts against the rule of Atsiz while he is fighting the Fatimid Empire in
Egypt. On his return to Jerusalem, Atsiz retakes the city and massacres the local population.[59] Not long after, Atsiz is executed by
Tutush I, governor of Syria under his brother,
Seljuk leader
Malik-Shah I. Tutush I appoints
Artuq bin Ekseb, later founder of the Artuqid dynasty, as governor.
1091–1095: Artuq bin Ekseb dies in 1091, and is succeeded as governor by his sons
Ilghazi and
Sokmen. Malik Shah dies in 1092, and the Seljuk Empire splits into smaller warring states. Control of Jerusalem is disputed between
Duqaq and
Radwan after the death of their father Tutush I in 1095. The ongoing rivalry weakens Syria.
1100:
Dagobert of Pisa becomes
Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem. Godfrey of Bouillon promises to turn over the rule of Jerusalem to the Papacy once the crusaders capture
Egypt. The invasion of Egypt did not occur as Godfrey died shortly thereafter.
Baldwin I was proclaimed the first
King of Jerusalem after politically outmanoeuvering Dagobert.
1131:
Melisende became Queen of Jerusalem, later acting as regent for her son between 1153 and 1161 while he was on campaign. She was the eldest daughter of King Baldwin II of Jerusalem, and the Armenian princess
Morphia of Melitene.
1160: According to Benjamin of Tudela, messianic claimant
David Alroy called his followers in
Baghdad to join him on a mission to Jerusalem.
1170–1184:
William of Tyre writes his magnum opus Historia Hierosolymitana.
Ayyubids and Second Crusader Kingdom
The Crusader defeat at the
Battle of Hattin leads to the end of the First Crusader Kingdom (1099–1187). During the Second Crusader Kingdom (1192–1291), the
Crusaders can only gain a foothold in Jerusalem on a limited scale, twice through treaties (access rights in 1192 after the
Treaty of Jaffa; partial control 1229–39 after the
Treaty of Jaffa and Tell Ajul), and again for a last time between 1241 and 1244.[61]
1193:
Mosque of Omar built under Saladin outside the
Church of the Holy Sepulchre, commemorating
Umar the Great's decision to pray outside the church so as not to set a precedent and thereby endanger the Church's status as a Christian site.
1219:
Jacques de Vitry writes his magnum opus Historia Hierosolymitana.
1229–1244: From 1229 to 1244, Jerusalem peacefully reverted to Christian control as a result of a 1229 Treaty agreed between the crusading
Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and
al-Kamil, the Ayyubid
Sultan of
Egypt, that ended the
Sixth Crusade.[62][63][64][65][66] The Ayyubids retained control of the Muslim holy places, and Arab sources suggest that Frederick was not permitted to restore Jerusalem's fortifications.
1239:
An-Nasir Dawud, Ayyubid Emir of
Kerak, briefly occupies the city and destroys its fortifications before withdrawing to Kerak.
1240–1244: An-Nasir Dawud competes with his cousin
As-Salih Ayyub, who had allied with the
Crusaders, for control of the region.
1244:
Siege of Jerusalem (1244) – In order to permanently retake the city from rival breakaway Abbasid rulers who had allied with the Crusaders, As-Salih Ayyub summoned a huge mercenary army of
Khwarezmians, who were available for hire following the defeat of the
Khwarazm Shah dynasty by the Mongols ten years earlier.[67] The Khwarezmians could not be controlled by As-Salih Ayyub, and destroyed the city. A few months later, the two sides met again at the decisive
Battle of La Forbie, marking the end of the Crusader influence in the region.
1246: The Ayyubids regain control of the city after the Khwarezmians are defeated by
Al-Mansur Ibrahim at
Lake Homs.
1248–1250: The
Seventh Crusade, launched in reaction to the 1244 destruction of Jerusalem, fails after
Louis IX of France is defeated and captured by Ayyubid Sultan
Turanshah at the
Battle of Fariskur in 1250. The
Mamluk Sultanate is indirectly created in Egypt as a result, as Turanshah is killed by his
Mamluk soldiers a month after the battle and his stepmother
Shajar al-Durr becomes
Sultana of Egypt with the Mamluk
Aybak as
Atabeg. The Ayyubids relocate to
Damascus, where they continue to control the rump of their empire including Jerusalem for a further ten years.
1260: The Army of the
Mongol Empire reaches Palestine for the first time:
Hulagu Khan returns to Mongolia following the death of
Mongke, leaving Kitbuqa and a reduced army to fight the
Battle of Ain Jalut, north of Jerusalem. The
Mongols are defeated by the Egyptian
Mamelukes under
Qutuz and
Baibars.[68]
Mamluk period
1267:
Nachmanides goes to Jerusalem and prays at the
Western Wall. Reported to have found only two Jewish families in the city.
1300: Further Mongol raids into Palestine under
Ghazan and
Mulay. Jerusalem held by the Mongols for four months (see
Ninth Crusade).
Hetham II, King of Armenia, was allied to the Mongols and is reported to have visited Jerusalem where he donated his sceptre to the Armenian Cathedral.
1482: The visiting
Dominican priest
Felix Fabri described Jerusalem as "a collection of all manner of abominations". As "abominations" he listed Saracens, Greeks, Syrians, Jacobites, Abyssinians, Nestorians, Armenians, Gregorians, Maronites, Turcomans, Bedouins, Assassins, a sect possibly Druzes, Mamelukes, and "the most accursed of all", Jews. Only the Latin Christians "long with all their hearts for Christian princes to come and subject all the country to the authority of the Church of Rome".
1517: Sultan Selim I makes a pilgrimage to Jerusalem on his way to the final defeat of the Mamluks at the
Battle of Ridaniya (
Cairo). Selim proclaims himself
Caliph of the Islamic world.
1518:
Abu Ghosh clan sent to Jerusalem to restore order and to secure the pilgrimage route between
Jaffa and Jerusalem.
1624: Following the
Battle of Anjar,
Druze prince
Fakhr-al-Din II is appointed the "Emir of Arabistan" by the Ottomans to govern the region from Aleppo to Jerusalem. He toured his new provinces in the same year.[72]
1663–1665:
Sabbatai Zevi, founder of the
Sabbateans, preaches in Jerusalem before travelling back to his native
Smyrna where he proclaimed himself the
Messiah.
1700:
Judah the Pious with 1000 followers settle in Jerusalem.
1703–1705: The
Naqib al-Ashraf revolt, during which the city's inhabitants revolted against heavy taxation. It was ultimately put down two years later by Jurji Muhammad Pasha.[73]
1705: Restrictions imposed against the Jews.
1744: The English reference book Modern history or the present state of all nations stated that "Jerusalem is still reckoned the capital city of Palestine".[74]
1771–1772: The renegade Christian Mamluk ruler of Egypt
Ali Bey al-Kabir temporarily took control of Jerusalem with 30,000 troops, together with
Zahir al-Umar and
Russia (who had also instigated a Greek revolt as part of the
Russo-Turkish War (1768–74)).
1838–1857: The first European consulates are opened in the city (e.g.
Britain 1838).
1839–1840: Rabbi
Judah Alkalai publishes "The Pleasant Paths" and "The Peace of Jerusalem", urging the return of European Jews to
Jerusalem and
Palestine.
1840: A
firman is issued by
Ibrahim Pasha forbidding Jews to pave the passageway in front of the
Western Wall. It also cautioned them against "raising their voices and displaying their books there."
1840: The Ottoman Turks retake the city—with help from the English (
Lord Palmerston).
1852: Sultan
Abdülmecid I published a firman setting out the rights and responsibility of each community at the
Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The firman is known as the "
Status quo" and its protocol is still in force today.
1853–1854: Under military and financial pressure from
Napoleon III, Sultan Abdulmecid I accepts a treaty confirming
France and the
Roman Catholic Church as the supreme authority in the Holy Land with control over the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. This decision contravened the 1774 treaty with Russia, and led to the
Crimean War.
1857–1890: The
Batei Mahse, two-storey buildings, are built in the Jewish Quarter by the Batei Mahse Company, an organization of Dutch and German Jews[78]
1860: The first Jewish neighbourhood (
Mishkenot Sha'ananim) is built outside the Old City walls, in an area later known as
Yemin Moshe, by Sir Moses Montefiore and
Judah Touro, as part of the process to "leave the walls" (
Hebrew: היציאה מן החומות).[79][80]
1868:
Mahane Israel becomes the second Jewish neighbourhood outside the walls after it was built by
Maghrebi Jews from the Old City.
1869:
Nahalat Shiv'a becomes the third Jewish neighbourhood outside the walls, built as a cooperative effort.
1872:
Beit David becomes the fourth Jewish neighbourhood outside the walls, built as an
almshouse.
1873–1875:
Mea She'arim is built (the fifth Jewish neighbourhood outside the walls).
1877: Jerusalem representative
Yousef al-Khalidi is appointed President of the Chamber of Deputies in the short-lived first Ottoman parliament following the accession of
Abdul Hamid II and the declaration of the
Kanun-ı Esasî.
1881:
Eliezer Ben-Yehuda moves to Jerusalem to begin his development of modern
Hebrew to replace the languages used by Jews who made
aliyah from various regions of the world.
1882: The
First Aliyah results in 25,000–35,000
Zionist immigrants entering the Palestine region.
1887–1888: Ottoman Palestine divided into the districts of Jerusalem,
Nablus and
Acre—Jerusalem District is "autonomous", i.e. attached directly to
Istanbul.
1897:
First Zionist Congress at which Jerusalem was discussed as the possible capital of a future Jewish state. In response,
Abdul Hamid II initiates policy of sending members of his own palace staff to govern province of Jerusalem.
28 May: The Jewish Quarter of the Old City falls to Arab Legion under British officer
Glubb Pasha; synagogues are destroyed and Jews evacuated.
Mordechai Weingarten discusses surrender terms with
Abdullah el Tell.
26 July:
West Jerusalem is proclaimed territory of Israel.
17 September:
Folke Bernadotte, the United Nations' mediator in Palestine and the first official mediator in the UN's history, is killed by
Lehi assassins.
28 June: Israel declares Jerusalem unified and announces free access to holy sites of all religions.
1968: Israel starts rebuilding the
Jewish Quarter, confiscating 129 dunams (0.129 km2) of land which had made up the Jewish Quarter before 1948.[89] 6000 residents and 437 shops are evicted.[90]
2008: Israeli Sephardic Religious Party,
Shas, refuses to form part of the government without a guarantee that there will be no negotiations that will lead to a partition of Jerusalem.
2017: December:
US president,
Donald Trump, recognizes Jerusalem as the
capital of Israel; this sparks protest by many Palestinians and other Muslims in the region.[91]
2018: The United States, followed by
Guatemala and
Paraguay become the first three countries to open embassies to Israel in Jerusalem.[92]
Graphical overview of Jerusalem's historical periods
^
abcdeSlavik, Diane. 2001. Cities through Time: Daily Life in Ancient and Modern Jerusalem. Geneva, Illinois: Runestone Press, p. 60.
ISBN978-0-8225-3218-7
^Mazar, Benjamin. 1975. The Mountain of the Lord. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., p. 45.
ISBN0-385-04843-2
^Crouch, C. L. (1 October 2014).
Israel and the Assyrians: Deuteronomy, the Succession Treaty of Esarhaddon, and the Nature of Subversion. SBL Press.
ISBN978-1-62837-026-3. Judah's reason(s) for submitting to Assyrian hegemony, at least superficially, require explanation, while at the same time indications of its read-but-disguised resistance to Assyria must be uncovered... The political and military sprawl of the Assyrian empire during the late Iron Age in the southern Levant, especially toward its outer borders, is not quite akin to the single dominating hegemony envisioned by most discussions of hegemony and subversion. In the case of Judah it should be reiterated that Judah was always a vassal state, semi-autonomous and on the periphery of the imperial system, it was never a fully-integrated provincial territory. The implications of this distinction for Judah's relationship with and experience of the Assyrian empire should not be underestimated; studies of the expression of Assyria's cultural and political powers in its provincial territories and vassal states have revealed notable differences in the degree of active involvement in different types of territories. Indeed, the mechanics of the Assyrian empire were hardly designed for direct control over all its vassals' internal activities, provided that a vassal produced the requisite tribute and did not provoke trouble among its neighbors, the level of direct involvement from Assyria remained relatively low. For the entirety of its experience of the Assyrian empire, Judah functioned as a vassal state, rather than a province under direct Assyrian rule, thereby preserving at least a certain degree of autonomy, especially in its internal affairs. Meanwhile, the general atmosphere of Pax Assyriaca in the southern Levant minimized the necessity of (and opportunities for) external conflict. That Assyrians, at least in small numbers, were present in Judah is likely - probably a qipu and his entourage who, if the recent excavators of Ramat Rahel are correct, perhaps resided just outside the capital - but there is far less evidence than is commonly assumed to suggest that these left a direct impression of Assyria on this small vassal state... The point here is that, despite the wider context of Assyria's political and economic power in the ancient Near East in general and the southern Levant in particular, Judah remained a distinguishable and semi-independent southern Levantine state, part of but not subsumed by the Assyrian empire and, indeed, benefitting from it in significant ways.
^Chronology of the
Israelite Tribes from The History Files (historyfiles.co.uk)
^Ben-Dov, Meir. 1985. In the Shadow of the Temple. New York, New York: Harper & Row Publishers, Inc., pp. 34–35.
ISBN0-06-015362-8
^http://studentreader.com/jerusalem/#Edict-of-Cyrus Student Reader Jerusalem: "When Cyrus captured Babylon, he immediately issued the Edict of Cyrus, a decree that those who had been exiled by the Babylonians could return to their homelands and start rebuilding."
^Richard Gottheil; Gotthard Deutsch;
Martin A. Meyer; Joseph Jacobs; M. Franco (1906).
"Jerusalem". Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved 23 September 2020 – via JewishEncyclopedia.com.
^Josephus,
Antiquities of the Jews, Book XI, Chapter 7. William Whiston edition, London 1737. Accessed 23 September 2020.
^"And when he had ordained five councils (συνέδρια), he distributed the nation into the same number of parts. So these councils governed the people; the first was at Jerusalem, the second at Gadara, the third at Amathus, the fourth at
Jericho, and the fifth at Sepphoris in Galilee."
Josephus, Ant. xiv 54:
^"Josephus uses συνέδριον for the first time in connection with the decree of the Roman governor of Syria, Gabinius (57 BCE), who abolished the constitution and the then existing form of government of Palestine and divided the country into five provinces, at the head of each of which a sanhedrin was placed ("Ant." xiv 5, § 4)." via
Jewish Encyclopedia: Sanhedrin:
^H.H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, pp. 247–248: "Consequently, the province of Judea may be regarded as a satellite of Syria, though, in view of the measure of independence left to its governor in domestic affairs, it would be wrong to say that in the Julio-Claudian era Judea was legally part of the province of Syria."
^A History of the Jewish People, H.H. Ben-Sasson editor, 1976, p. 247: "When Judea was converted into a Roman province [in 6 CE, p. 246], Jerusalem ceased to be the administrative capital of the country. The Romans moved the governmental residence and military headquarters to Caesarea. The centre of government was thus removed from Jerusalem, and the administration became increasingly based on inhabitants of the Hellenistic cities (Sebaste, Caesarea and others)."
^John P. Meier's
A Marginal Jew, vol. 1, ch. 11; also H.H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976,
ISBN0-674-39731-2, p. 251: "But after the first agitation (which occurred in the wake of the first Roman census) had faded out, we no longer hear of bloodshed in Judea until the days of Pilate."
^Buckley, Jorunn Jacobsen (2010). Turning the Tables on Jesus: The Mandaean View. In Horsley, Richard (March 2010).
Christian Origins.
ISBN978-1-4514-1664-0.(pp94-111). Minneapolis: Fortress Press
^Drower, Ethel Stefana (1953). The Haran Gawaita and the Baptism of Hibil-Ziwa. Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana.
^H.H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976,
ISBN0-674-39731-2, The Crisis Under Gaius Caligula, pp. 254–256: "The reign of Gaius Caligula (37–41) witnessed the first open break between the Jews and the
Julio-Claudian empire. Until then—if one accepts
Sejanus' heyday and the trouble caused by the
census after Archelaus' banishment—there was usually an atmosphere of understanding between the Jews and the empire ... These relations deteriorated seriously during Caligula's reign, and, though after his death the peace was outwardly re-established, considerable bitterness remained on both sides. ... Caligula ordered that a golden statue of himself be set up in the
Temple in Jerusalem. ... Only Caligula's death, at the hands of Roman conspirators (41), prevented the outbreak of a Jewish-Roman war that might well have spread to the entire
East."
^Christopher Mackay. "Ancient Rome a Military and Political History" 2007: 230
^Beckles Willson, Rachel (2013). Orientalism and Musical Mission: Palestine and the West. Cambridge University Press. p. 146.
ISBN978-1-107-03656-7.
^Schaff's Seven Ecumenical Councils: First Nicaea: Canon VII: "Since custom and ancient tradition have prevailed that the Bishop of Aelia [i.e., Jerusalem] should be honored, let him, saving its due dignity to the Metropolis, have the next place of honor."; "It is very hard to determine just what was the "precedence" granted to the Bishop of Aelia, nor is it clear which is the "metropolis" referred to in the last clause. Most writers, including
Hefele,
Balsamon,
Aristenus and Beveridge
William Beveridge?] consider it to be
Cæsarea; while
Zonaras thinks Jerusalem to be intended, a view recently adopted and defended by Fuchs; others again suppose it is
Antioch that is referred to."
^Browning, Robert. 1978. The Emperor Julian. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, p. 176.
ISBN0-520-03731-6
^Horn, Cornelia B.; Robert R. Phenix, Jr. 2008. The Lives of Peter the Iberian, Theodosius of Jerusalem, and the Monk Romanus. Atlanta, Georgia: Society of Biblical Literature, p. lxxxviii.
ISBN978-1-58983-200-8
^Singh, Nagendra. 2002. "International Encyclopedia of Islamic Dynasties"'
^Bosworth, Clifford Edmund. 2007. Historic Cities of the Islamic World
^Runciman, Steven. 1951. A History of the Crusades: Volume 1 The First Crusade and the Foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 279–290.
ISBN0-521-06161-X
^Larry H. Addington (1990).
The Patterns of War Through the Eighteenth Century. Midland book.
Indiana University Press. p. 59.
ISBN978-0-253-20551-3. ... in the Sixth Crusade, Frederick II ...concluded a treaty with the Saracens in 1229 that placed Jerusalem under Christian control but allowed Muslim and Christian alike freedom of access to the religious shrines of the city. ... Within fifteen years of Frederick's departure from the Holy Land, the Khwarisimian Turks, successors to the Seljuks, rampaged through Syria and Palestine, capturing Jerusalem in 1244. (Jerusalem would not be ruled again by Christians until the British occupied it in December 1917, during World War I.)
^Fisk and King, 'Description of Jerusalem,' in The Christian Magazine, July 1824, p. 220. Mendon Association, 1824.
^Shvarts, Shifra. "Health Services in Eretz Israel (Palestine) in the Nineteenth Century." The Workers' Health Fund in Eretz Israel: Kupat Holim, 1911-1937, Boydell & Brewer, 2002, pp. 7–19. JSTOR,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt7zsv0p.9. Accessed 12 Oct. 2022.
^Segev, Tom (1999).
One Palestine, Complete. Metropolitan Books. pp.
295–313.
ISBN0-8050-4848-0. The group assembled at the Wall shouting "the Wall is ours". They raised the
Jewish national flag and sang
Hatikvah, the
Israeli anthem. The authorities had been notified of the march in advance and provided a heavy police escort in a bid to prevent any incidents. Rumours spread that the youths had attacked local residents and had cursed the name of
Muhammad.
^"Christians in the Holy Land" Edited by Michael Prior and William Taylor.
ISBN0-905035-32-1. p. 104: Albert Aghazarian "The significance of Jerusalem to Christians". This writer states that "Jews did not own any more than 20% of this quarter" prior to 1948